Heathcliff in Wuthering Heights Essay

Who or what does Heathcliff represent in Wuthering Heights? Is he a force of evil or a victim of it and how important is the role of class in the novel, particularly as it relates to Heathcliff and his life? The ‘moral ambiguity, glamour and degradation that is Heathcliff’ (same as below) forms the ultimate focus for the novel Wuthering Heights, beginning as Heathcliff is brought into the Earnshaw family, with his evil machinations completely driving the story and his death marking the conclusion of the novel. Throughout Bronte’s work he is portrayed as a strong figure who remains mysterious, magnetic and charismatic, keeping countless readers engaged throughout centuries through the desire to understand both Heathcliff’s character and his motivations. Tortured, brooding, passionate and dark, Heathcliff is undoubtedly the embodiment of the Byronic hero, i.e. a self-destructive anti-hero who is isolated from society, much like Mr. Rochester from Jane Eyre or, more recently, Edward Cullen from the Twilight series. While his actions throughout the novel are neither likeable, nor condonable, they are driven by passion, an emotion synonymous with a typical literary hero and this, alongside his torturous love for Cathy, means that readers cannot help but feel empathy for him, bringing them closer to Heathcliff than any other character in the novel. Wuthering Heights provoked a good deal of anxiety when published, most of which was caused by the character of Heathcliff. The Examiner felt outraged by the mixture of affection and loathing he inspired, and even Emily’s sister, Charlotte felt ‘hard put to justify Heathcliff’s ‘repulsiveness’ and was forced onto the defensive. The creation of Heathcliff, she conceded, may not have been advisable.’ (Cambridge companion to the Bronte’s, page 166) Not solely a Byronic hero, Heathcliff is also seen to be a ‘nightmarish manifestation of subtler fears about self-making gone too far’. (Forgery in Nineteenth-Century Literature and Culture p. 13) Heathcliff is the epitome of a self-made man, rising from a degraded and abused orphan on the streets of Liverpool to a man of property, wealth, success and culture, a man ‘in dress and manners a gentleman: that is, as much a gentleman as many a country squire’ (Wuthering Heights p.21) a mere twenty five years later. This climb to wealth fundamentally embodies the anxieties that upper and  middle class Victorians possessed regarding the working classes. The upper classes were very ambivalent about the people below them socially; feeling charitable towards the lower-classes, yet weary of the idea that they may escape their circumstances through the acquisition of power, be it political, social, economic or cultural. The role of class in the novel is something of a constant struggle for Heathcliff, as although he manages to obtain property and therefore wealth, he can never change his appearance, which implies more socially than his wealth ever can. For even as Lockwood notes his gentlemanly appearance, he also recognises Heathcliff as a ‘dark-skinned gipsy in aspect’ (Wuthering Heights p.21), showing how his ethnic background presents an unusual contrast to his master of the house image, and how he can never truly escape his social standing. This social standing has an enormous effect on the character of Heathcliff and his life as the novel progresses. Rescued from the streets of Liverpool, Heathcliff enters the Earnshaw household a poor orphan, which automatically deems him to be on a lower level than any other character. He is immediately characterised as a ‘villain’, ‘imp of Satan’, with a language of ‘gibberish’ (Wuthering Heights) and is cruelly referred to as â€Å"it† by Catherine’s father, seen as an object rather than a person. This poor treatment is not much of an improvement on his difficult childhood and it is clear to see that he becomes a product of this neglect and abuse. Racially different, Heathcliff can and will never be accepted by his adoptive family, something which is highlighted to readers through the fact that he is never given the Earnshaw family name. Nelly uses an interesting choice of words to describe how the occupants of Wuthering Heights felt about Heathcliff’s arrival, saying ‘from the very beginning, he bred bad feeling in the house.’ (Wuthering heights ch. 4) These words are evocative as there is much speculation surrounding Heathcliff’s heritage. Coming from Liverpool, a town with high rates of immigrants, and with his dark looks, Heathcliff is likely of mixed race, with some critics suggesting that he is black, or, like Patrick Bronte, descended from Irish immigrants, either of which would lower his social standing even further. The theme of class is further intertwined in the plot as Heathcliff’s low  class ranking is one of the sole reasons that Catherine chooses to marry Edgar rather than to be with him, despite the fact that while her feelings towards Edgar fluctuate, she loves Heathcliff so intensely that she claims they are the same person. She finds Edgar ‘handsome and pleasant to be with’ (Wuthering Heights), yet these are merely superficialities; Catherine truly marries Edgar because he is a part of the right social class, possessing the ability to provide financial security for her. She has  clearly considered the prospect of marrying Heathcliff as she not only tells Nelly that if Heathcliff and she were to marry ‘we should be beggars’ (Wuthering Heights) but also reveals plans to use Edgar’s money to help Heathcliff rise in the class system. After Heathcliff returns, Catherine cannot contain her happiness, forcing Edgar to ask her to choose between Heathcliff and him. She refuses to honour that request, later blaming both men for breaking her heart as she could not choose between her love for Heathcliff and the life that Edgar could offer her. Marrying Edgar guaranteed Catherine a higher social standing. Overall, Heathcliff’s role in the Victorian class hierarchy plays an integral role in major events of his life. It is the reason he is abused by the master of the house, the reason that Catherine chooses Edgar over him, leading him to seek revenge and to make something of himself, but, above all, it is the reason he acts so despicably in the latter half of the novel, encouraging Isabella’s infatuation and acting aggressively. None of these events would have taken place if Heathcliff was of a higher social class, as he would have simply been able to marry Catherine. Throughout the text, Heathcliff is repeatedly referred to as being evil in ‘nature†¦ an unmannerly wretch’ (wuthering heights), with his own wife even asking if he is mad or a devil. Most of the characters assume that individuals are born good or evil, with people having little control over their personalities or actions. However, is Heathcliff truly a force of evil or merely a victim of it? Is it possible that he could represent both? It is undeniable that Heathcliff is a product of his upbringing. He was neglected, which in turn made him neglectful. He was abused, and so became abusive. He was segregated from the other characters, and so he cast everyone aside from  himself. He was treated unfairly throughout his upbringing, making him violent and resentful in later life. Heathcliff is the utmost paradigm of a victim turned perpetrator, and often falls back on violence as a means to express his feelings of both love and hatred. His anger is due to the mistreatment he suffered at the hands of Mr. Earnshaw, Hindley and Catherine, tying it to the revenge which he so passionately seeks. Despite this, Heathcliff also undertakes dishonourable, cruel acts against those who have done no harm to him in the past, demonstrating a side of him which shows that he is not solely a victim of evil, but also possesses a dark streak. The best example of this is the hanging of Isabella Linton’s dog, when Heathcliff says: The first thing she saw me do, on coming out of the Grange, was to hang up her little dog; and when she pleaded for it, the first words I uttered were a wish that I had the hanging of every being belonging to her, except one possibly she took that exception for herself. (WH chapter 12) Ultimately though, Heathcliff’s violence and darkness stems from bearing a chip on his shoulder and hanging onto the complexes gained from his past. He may possess a mean streak, however this has ultimately come as a consequence of his early life. Therefore, he is not a force of evil as such, as he had reason for the majority of his actions. No matter how violent or despicable Heathcliff may be by times, he cannot help but remain likeable, due in part to his love of Catherine. His love for her is violent in the sense that it is extremely passionate, but it stirs a brutal defensiveness; Heathcliff would never do anything to harm Catherine. Towards the end of the novel, he confesses to Nelly that he no longer has any interest in violence. This is not so much because he has sated his appetite for it, but rather he has gone past the need to inflict suffering onto others as a form of vengeance, proving that cruelty was never truly an inbuilt feature of his character. The real discomfort created by the novel when published was not ‘so much that Heathcliff is atrocious, but that he is not, after all, entirely despicable.’ (cambridge 167) The novel consistently gives the impression that there is more to Heathcliff’s actions than meets the eye, for example,  his cruelty is seen as merely an expression of his frustrated love for Catherine, or his sinister behaviour conceals the heart of a romantic hero. His character is expected to have a hidden virtue as he resembles a romantic hero, partly due to his overt masculinity, although this is taken to extremes of aggressiveness by times. Traditionally, heroes of romanticism appear dangerous, brooding and cold only to later emerge as loving and devoted. While Heathcliff does not reform as expected, there is no need for him to do so, as he remains permanently devoted and passionate about Catherine, although unable to clearly portray these emotions. Certain malevolence proves difficult to explain, as it cannot be deemed a form of revenge against people who have previously wronged him. As he himself points out, his abuse of Isabella is purely for his sadistic amusement, seeing how much she will endure while still returning. Critic Joyce Carol Oates argues that Brontà « does to the reader that which Heathcliff does to Isabella, testing to see how much the reader can be shocked by Heathcliff’s gratuitous violence and still,  masochistically, insist on seeing him as a romantic hero. Oates has a valid point, as, for all his flaws and sadistic actions, one cannot hate, or even dislike the character of Heathcliff, seeing him solely as a wounded soul who tries to get back at those who previously hurt him, making him the ultimate Byr onic hero of Nineteenth Century literature.

Nature of Relationship between Edward II and Graveston and its effects Essay

Marlowe’s Edward II is marked with the thematic expressions of correlation between status and sodomy. Sodomy affects status in the play at multiple level and status influences sodomy in various ways. In the play, Marlowe takes into accounts the story of Edward II, whose homoeroticism takes primacy over his political stature and socio-cultural commitments. He ultimately pays back for his criminality and sins through constant torments and afflictions and play culminates on his tragic death. As far as sodomitical relations remains apolitical, there is no public castigation or disapproval of this affair, but it becomes a cause of tension when it is transformed into a political associations with political objectives. Marlowe portrays Edward’s homoerotic love and affiliation with his underling Piers Gaveston. Play opens with following lines where Edward openly expresses his homoeroticism; â€Å"Sweet prince, I come. These, these thy amorous lines/ Might have enforced me to have swum from France,/ And, like Leander, gasped upon the sand,/ So thou wouldst smile and take me in thy arms. † (1. 1. 34) King Edward claims that he would give in his entire kingdom to only keep a â€Å"nook or corner† where he and Graveston could â€Å"frolic† is an ultimate manifestation of his love for Gaveston. (1. 4. 72-3). This further discloses that King is not much interested in his political obligations and responsibilities and his mind is captivated by the thoughts of homoeroticism and Graveston. Spencer Jr. is another character on whom King bestows his affections for the same reason of erotic love. Edward often calls Spencer with the titles of â€Å"sweet†. For example on one occasion he says; â€Å"Spencer, sweet Spencer, I adopt thee here†(3. 1. 144), repeat on another occasion; â€Å"Spencer, ah, sweet Spencer, thus then must we part? † (4. 7. 72) and again says; â€Å"Part we must, / Sweet Spencer† (4. 7. 94-5). Rutkoski says in this regard; â€Å"Edward calls the former â€Å"Good Piers of Gaveston, my sweet favorite† and indeed favors Gaveston to the extent that the king denies any distinction between him and his lover (III. iii. 8). To â€Å"manifest [his] love,† Edward offers Spencer Jr. a largess of crowns and promises, â€Å"daily [we] will enrich thee with our favor, / That, as the sunshine, shall reflect o’er thee† (III. i. 52, 50-1). Until the prince’s first entrance in act III, scene i–an entrance that hovers near the center of the play, as if the boy represents the heart of it–there is only one, rather colorless, mention of his existence. † But that love does not restrict to the private corridors of the palace but is manifested in the form of bestowing high status to Graveston. Edward makes him â€Å"Lord High Chamberlain, Earl of Cornwall, King and Lord of Man†. Additionally, there are various outcrop of this political recognition of homoerotic affairs. On one side Graveston longs for greater admiration, respect and acknowledgment of his status and hankers after various measures o gather supremacy among the noble ranks. On the other hand Edward craves for an official demand for public recognition of his sodomitical love for Graveston and sanctified by the nobles and lords. To further his purpose Graveston sow the seeds of ill-wishes in the mind of Edward against nobles. For example Graveston explicitly criticize nobles during his second meeting with the King. His major concern is that although he is close associate and darling of king, nobles does not entertain him with respect and does not recognize his political position. He says to King: â€Å"Base leaden earls that glory in your birth,/Go sit at home and eat your tenants’ beef,/ And come not here to scoff at Gaveston,/ Whose mounting thoughts did never creep so low/ As to bestow a look on such as you. † (2. 2. 74-8) Initially nobility has no objection to the sodomitical affairs of the king. Instead nobility endorses it in one way or the other. For example Mortimer Senior’s not only approves of Edward’s homosexuality but also defend it by citing historical examples of royalty indulgence in homoerotic activities. He says in his speech: â€Å"The mightiest kings have had their minions:/ Great Alexander loved Hephestion;/ The conquering Hercules for Hylas wept;/ And for Patroclus stern Achilles drooped. / And not kings only, but the wisest men:/ The Roman Tully loved Octavius,/ Grave Socrates, wild Alcibiades. † (1. 4. 390-6) This example clearly manifest an admiration of homosexuality as great people remained indulged in this practice. So nobility does not challenge homoeroticism of Edward on the premises of it religious attributions i. e. something related to sin. Following this premise, Mortimer Junior is of the view that King’s â€Å"wanton humour grieves not me† (1. 4. 401); So there is no concern about his bad habitual formation and tendencies as long as it remains private and apolitical. Ellenzweig has summed up the main cause of nobility’s anger against Graveston: â€Å"Everyone else–the anti-Gaveston faction at court, Church representatives, and Queen Isabella herself–are too driven by self-interest to find in Gaveston’s rise anything but threats to their own status. And within the terms of the play, if perhaps not the historical record, the anti-Gavestons are traitorous to their king: they seek not only to thwart Edward’s love, but ultimately, in the sexual-power alliance of Mortimer and Isabella, to overthrow their rightful sovereign. † It is obvious that defiance of nobility and lords does not stem from Edward indulgence in homoerotic amorous affairs but the public recognition of Graveston and his placement at higher stature in the court. Openness of this affair to public and recognition of Graveston new status is not only shocking for the nobility but is offensive to them as a minion with low moral qualities is made Chamberlain. So relationship thus is not restricted to sexual capacity only but is transformed into a political association. Marlowe has beautifully disclosed the varying nature of relationship as he discloses that private becomes public and sexual becomes political. But elemental nobility does not want to recognize him more than a sodomite. They not only disapprove political recognition of Graveston by the king but also challenges it whenever they find a chance. For example, Lancaster asks king about permission to Graveston to sit with people f ranks in the court: â€Å"why do you thus incense your peers. / That naturally would love and honour you / But for that base and obscure Gaveston? † (1. 1. 98-100). So political recognition is unacceptable to lords and they start defying by a series of flare-ups and trivial squabbles. It seems that for Gaveston’s, the basic objective this sodomitical relations is not gratification of erotic desires but he utilize his sexuality to promote his political aims and to gain an upward mobility. So he does not let king go away from his shackles. He skillfully employs his sexual dexterities. This tension between his spell-bound effect on Edward in order to further his political goals and nobility’s defiance of his political recognition and growing influence in the corridors of power finally lead to establishment of some troublemaking elements. Edward II disinterest in the political affairs further causes misgovernance that ultimate culminates in the insurgency by the nobility. Such was the captivation of Graveston that after his detainment, Edward does not recognize the reality of the situation but says; â€Å"Ah, Spencer, not the riches of my realm/ Can ransom [Gaveston]! Ah, he is mark’d to die. / I know the malice of the younger Mortimer. † (3. 1. 3-5) There is another manifestation of this homoeroticism on the familial relationships. Edward’s relation with his wife and son is marred by excessive love for Graveston and Spencer Jr. Queen grumble against Edward’s inattention to her and Edward Junior and warns the king to leave to France with her son: â€Å"If [King Edward] be strange and not regard my words,/ My son and I will over into France,/ And to the King, my brother, there complain. † (2. 4. 64-6) Rutkoski says in this regard that â€Å"Prince Edward’s potential to be loved by his father is eclipsed during the first several acts by the play’s focus on Gaveston and Spencer Jr. † Rutkoski further elaborates that Edward Jr. is only able to mark his presence due to the death of Graveston. So inattention and lack of paternal affection was his fate till the death of Graveston. He further says that â€Å"When Prince Edward physically appears on the stage in act III, scene i, Gaveston has been killed and Spencer Jr. is well on his way to replacing him, though without evoking the marked eroticism that characterized Edward and Gaveston’s king-minion relationship. † The low status of Graveston is challenged at every instant in the play and it creates the main dramatic tension in the play. The two most frequently used phrases in the play are against Graveston’s low status i. e. â€Å"low† and minion†. This main dramatic tension culminates in class ambitiousness that activates forces on both sides. The established nobility does not want an alien of low status to be among them and Graveston’s political ambitions forces him to take every measure to get a higher place among nobility. This saga finally ends with the execution of Graveston but Edward’s politics of sodomitical relationship does not end here as Marlowe places Spencer Jr. and same patterns of relationships are replicated again. Spencer Jr is subjected to the same ridicule e. g. â€Å"a putrifying branch / That deads the royal vine† (3. 1. 162-3). However some critics are of the view that Edward relation with Spencer Jr. was devoid of homoerotic connotations. Charlton is of the view that sexual passion only existed between Edward and Gaveston, â€Å"but for the most part Edward’s favourites [Spencer and Baldock] are presented, as in Raphael Holinshed, only as the objects of infatuated friendship†. ( p. 29) Whatever is the nature of relationship between Edward and Spencer Jr. it must be kept in mind that this gives a new life to rebelliousness of the nobles against Edward II after the execution of Graveston. The whole affair ends with degradation of the king and finally his execution. Above-mentioned arguments and supporting evidence clearly manifest that Graveston’s homoerotic relation with Edward was of political nature as Graveston utilized it to promote his political aims. This produced defiance among the nobility that rebelled against him due to his underserved grant of higher status to Graveston. Calmness prevailed until this relation was out of the spheres of politics and corridors of powers. Works Cite d Gregory W. Bredbeck, Sodomy and Interpretation: Marlowe to Milton (Ithaca and London: Cornell Univ. Press, 1991.Edward II, ed. Charlton and R. D. Waller, The Works and Life of Christopher Marlowe. London: Methuen, 1933. Ellenzweig, Allen. â€Å"The Marlowe in Edward II. (Christopher Marlowe)(Critical essay). .† The Gay & Lesbian Review Worldwide. 15. 2 (March-April 2008): 12(3). General OneFile. Gale. Apollo Library. 3 Sept. 2008 . Rutkoski, Marie. â€Å"Breeching the boy in Marlowe’s Edward II. † Studies in English Literature, 1500-1900. 46. 2 (Spring 2006): 281(24). General OneFile. Gale. Apollo Library. 3 Sept. 2008. .

Stefan’s Diaries: Bloodlust Chapter 26

I spent the night at the lake again, but this time I didnt sleep. Instead I sat along the bank, listening to the world hum around me as though I was an audience member at a musical show. Frogs croaked melodically, blowing out their chests with proud puffs. Fish swam to the lakes surface to gulp down the water bugs that hovered there, then dived back down to the depths with soft flips of their tails. Birds flew overhead in V formation, and small animals rustled through the reeds, chasing one another as they ferreted out their next meal. Then came the grand finale as the sun, an enormous, watery orb, rose to its place of prominence in the sky, signaling that it was the all-powerful king and Earth was its subject. As I sat there, watching the one thing that could kill me in an instant if it werent for the ring Katherine gave me, a sense of calm rippled through my body. The world was beautiful and magical and I was lucky to still have a place in it. Grabbing a perfectly round, flat stone, I stood and looked out over the water. I closed my eyes.If it skips four times, everything will be okay.Then I let the stone soar. It skipped once twice three times â€Å"Four skips! Impressive!† a voice cheered, followed by enthusiastic clapping. I turned around just as Callie leaped into my arms. â€Å"Youre in a good mood,† she said with a smile. â€Å"I am. And its all thanks to you.† She tucked her arm through mine. â€Å"In that case, I know just how you can thank me!† I felt her pulse beating through my coat, and her blood smelled nearly irresistible. But the stone had skipped four times, so I bent down to kiss her. Callie and I spent all day together, and then I slept at the lake again. When I arrived home the following day at dusk, I found a pile of clothes, including the black trousers and gray coat Id modeled for Lexi, on the floor outside my room. On top of the pile was a note, written in block handwriting. Follow your heart. You're lucky you still have one. I scooped the bundle up into my arms, touched, relieved, and a little bit sad all at once. I changed into a blue chambray shirt and white trousers and slicked my hair back in the mirror. I looked like any young man preparing for a rendezvous with a pretty girl. I just wished it were that simple. I crept down the stairs, waiting for someone to jump out of the shadows to stop me–to tell me my plan would never work. But I made it all the way down and then through the kitchen and out the backdoor without that happening. Once outside, I walked the two miles to Laurel Street with my hands in my pockets, whistling the strains of â€Å"God Save the South.† I paused to pick a white magnolia from a bush in front of a peach-colored mansion at the bottom of Callies street. â€Å"Stefan!† an urgent whisper came from behind the tree at the bottom of the Gallagher driveway. Callie stepped into view. Her hair was loose and flowing down her back, and she was wearing a white nightdress trimmed in eyelet lace, just like the first time Id seen her, except that this time she was standing close enough to me that I could see that although she was wearing a heavy gray woolen shawl, she wasnt wearing a petticoat. I turned away, suddenly shy. â€Å"Stefan,† Callie murmured, brushing my arm with her fingers. â€Å"Are you ready?† â€Å"Yes,† I said. I took the flower and tucked it behind her ear. She smiled. â€Å"Youre such a gentleman.† â€Å"And youre beautiful,† I responded, reaching out to push a strand of hair behind her ear. Her tresses were as soft as rose petals and smelled of honey. I wanted to stay there forever, watching her breath form puffs of air in front of me. â€Å"Callie † I began, when the bells of a distant church chimed suddenly into the frosty air. Twelve bells. Midnight. The witching hour. â€Å"Its time,† Callie said. â€Å"Jaspers shift lasts until twelve thirty, but I can tell him youre there to relieve him early. That will buy us some time. Once the second guard shows up, youll be long gone. But we have to hurry.† She sounded very sure of herself, but her trembling lip gave away her emotions. I wanted to throw my arms around her, tuck her into bed, and whisper â€Å"sweet dreams† in her ear. But I, a vampire, was relying on this child to protect me. Callie knit her fingers together as if in silent prayer. Then she nodded and gave me a wan smile. â€Å"Dont be scared,† she said, pressing her palm into mine. But I could feel her heart thumping at a gallop from the pulse points in her palm. She led me through the iron gates and around the gravel driveway, and opened a nondescript door on the side of the house. â€Å"Be quiet,† Callie commanded, as my eyes adjusted to the dark. Unlike the rest of the house, with its polished marble and gleaming oak, this entrance was strictly utilitarian, designed for servants to have easy access to the storage space in the attic without disturbing the residents of the house. A steep staircase, made of unfinished walnut beams, loomed in front of us. Callie cocked her head, listening for something. I followed suit, although my thoughts were buzzing too loudly for me to hear specific words. Suddenly, I heard a scraping sound from the floor above us. Callie glanced at me; shed heard it as well. â€Å"Jasper,† Callie explained. â€Å"We should go up.† She walked up the rickety steps, as I followed quickly behind her. Once we got to the cracked, whitewashed door, she knocked–two quick raps followed by a pause, then a longer one. A lock clicked, and then we heard the scratch of metal against metal as Jasper undid the bolt. Finally, he opened the door, wedging his body next to the edge so we couldnt see inside. â€Å"Well, well, well. Callie and the man who staked the vampire, then ran for his life. To what do we owe the pleasure?† Jasper leered. I shifted uncomfortably, trying to get a glimpse inside the room. â€Å"Hello, Jasper,† Callie said, brushing past him and motioning for me to follow. In the darkness, I could just make out a sizable cage in the corner. A large, unmoving lump lay inside. â€Å"Father needs you in the study. Stefan will take over until the next shift arrives.† â€Å"Meet Jasper in the study?† a loud voice boomed. â€Å"But Im right here.† I froze.Gallagher. Callies father was perched at a rickety table behind the door, a hand of cards laid out in front of him. In the center of the table, a single candle flickered. â€Å"Oh, Father.† Callie giggled. The sound felt forced, out of place. â€Å"I must have been confused. I know youd wanted to play cards tonight, and I suppose I thought youd be more comfortable in the study or † she began, her voice wavering. She licked her lips and sat down at the table across from Gallagher. â€Å"Youre kind to think of me, girl,† Gallagher said gruffly. â€Å"Mr. Gallagher,† I said, bowing slightly. â€Å"I was told to report for duty, but perhaps Im mistaken?† The confusion wasnt hard to feign. Callie had sworn her father would be out of the house. â€Å"Is that right, Jasper?† Gallagher asked. â€Å"Guess it is. He aint bad, that one. A little nervous, but when he sticks em, he sticks em good.† Gallagher nodded, taking in the information. â€Å"And this is that boy you trust, Miss Callie?† Gallagher asked his daughter. Callie nodded, her cheeks reddening under her freckles. Then finally, thankfully, Gallagher stood up, his chair scraping against the floor. â€Å"Well, then, Ill leave you boys to it,† he said, taking his whiskey and following his daughter downstairs. â€Å"So youre Gallaghers guy now, aint you?† Jasper asked, shoving a vervain-soaked stake in my hands. My skin burned, and pain shot through my arms. I fought the urge to growl and clamped down on my tongue. Tensing, I felt the stake with only two fingers, trying to minimize the contact the poisoned wood had with my body. â€Å"Well, I aint going to stick around,† Jasper continued. â€Å"The vampires hungry tonight. Hope he eats you. And while he does that, Im going to spend some time with Miss Callie and her daddy. Show em youre not the only man who can be all friendly and genteel-like,† Jasper said. His movements were loose, and I could smell whiskey on his breath. â€Å"Brother?†I whispered. Damon reared up, fangs bared, causing me to jump back in surprise. He laughed, a hoarse chuckle, then collapsed against the side of the cage, exhausted from the exertion. â€Å"What, brother? Scared of a vampire?† I ignored him as I began wresting the door off the structure. Damon watched in curiosity and then slowly crawled over toward me. He was just reaching out when I felt a searing pain radiate from my spine through my entire body. â€Å"Gotcha!† a voice yelled.

16th Century U.K. Epidemics and its Impact on the British Essay

16th Century U.K. Epidemics and its Impact on the British - Essay Example This paper discusses the impact of epidemics upon the British people in the 16th century (1500-1600) with reference to three common diseases. The first part is a brief introduction on what an epidemic is and its causes.The second part is on England before and during the 16th century to show why it became prone to epidemics The third part is on epidemics of malaria, influenza, and the plague in 16th century England and its effects on the English people and their history.An epidemic is an outbreak of a contagious disease that affects an unusually large proportion of people or involves an extensive geographical area. Epidemics such as the recent SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome) outbreak in Asia may last for a few months, but some last for years, such as the plague that ravaged Europe for six centuries (Encarta, 2007; Ranger & Slack, 1992).Epidemiology is the study of how diseases are transmitted and how people infected by diseases can be cured to control the extent of epidemics. Diseases are caused by organisms such as bacteria or parasites, some of which lie dormant until they reside in a living host.Others are caused by viruses, strands of DNA that enter cells of living creatures and cause mutations that affect the living body. Once these organisms enter the host through infection, they multiply and cause the host to get sick, turning the host into a carrier of disease-causing organisms in very large numbers. Disease-causing organisms are spread by contamination of food and water, physical contact, or the exchange of bodily fluids like saliva, semen, or blood, or through insects, rodents, and other disease-carrying animals known as vectors or agents that infect human populations. In the past, these diseases were believed to be caused by "germs" that spread their evil effects in the air. So lethal were these germs that they changed the fates of human societies in the last 13,000 years (Diamond, 2005). Germs went through a deadly cycle of mutation and adaptation, infecting animals and humans, each mutation giving rise to deadlier forms or diseases. Bacteria, parasites, and viruses need to eat in order to live and multiply. Germs (or microbes) do not exist to kill other living beings. Death is an unfortunate consequence, and if germs had their way, they would prefer their hosts to stay healthy, as millions of bacteria already do in the human body, helping in digestion and fighting deadlier diseases. Disease and death are unintended consequences of germs finding living bodies in which to live, encouraged by environmental conditions and the habits of the living hosts. Poor living conditions and poor sanitation, the concentration of populations into a smaller area that encouraged greater and frequent social contact, the thirst for discovery and travel to foreign lands, the search for greater wealth and prosperity, changes in weather conditions, and even a rise in promiscuity were the factors that increased the frequency of disease and epidemics (Wilkinson, 1992). Epidemics eventually die down once the conditions for their transmission disappear. In several parts of Europe in the Middle Ages, the plague disappeared from a town because half its population who were still healthy and uninfected were able to get away, while half including animals were infected and died. With no new living hosts, the bacteria could not survive. Weather changes also affected the rate of infection, whether they encouraged people to stay home or to go out. Either way, infection could spread at a faster rate through proximity and social contact. These conditions led to epidemics that would die down when these factors disappear. England in the 16th Century At the turn of the 16th century, Spain and Portugal was the European superpower, and having just discovered America through Columbus, it launched until the middle of the 16th century several sea voyages that led to the discovery of South America, Africa, the Pacific

The Ethics of Job Discrimination Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Ethics of Job Discrimination - Essay Example US Court of Appeal for the Second Circuit applied US Supreme Court's opinion (Reeves v. Sanderson Plumbing Inc. and McDonnell Douglas Corp. v. Green) that "The plaintiff must first establish a prima facie case of discrimination. Once the plaintiff has met the minimal burden of establishing a prima facie case, the burden then shifts to the defendant to produce a legitimate, nondiscriminatory reason for the adverse employment action. The burden then shifts back to the plaintiff to show that the proffered reason was pretextual and that the defendant discriminated against the plaintiff" http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4180/is_20010620/ai_n10066999 So, in the above case, initially, it is the burden of the employees to show that they had been discriminated by Texaco and later, the burden of proof lies with the employer to demonstrate justifiable nondiscriminatory reasons supported by statistics that the decision was not influenced by discrimination (Zimmermann v. Associates First Capital Corporation). In 1973, the case of McDowell Douglas Corporation v. Green the Supreme Court established the burden of proof (Title VII) as a model by opening: Plaintiff carries the initial burden establishing that he/she belongs to a protected group, is qualified for the job, and was rejected while post remained vacant, and the burden shifts to the employer to justify himself.

The Evolution of the American Dream Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

The Evolution of the American Dream - Essay Example Essay on The American Dream shows The American Dream all about true prosperity for all – never about false prosperity attained via government schemes. It is never about infringing the rights of American citizens for a cause that is deemed worthy of self-appointed moralists.The essay example states that The American Dream is about the natural right of a person to pursue liberty, a successful life, and happiness. Democratic service, as proposed by Martin Luther King, should mean a collective way of exercising the little power that people hold so to challenge the power levers (Adams 113). Here, power sets the norms, values and the ends that a specific society abides by. The values get to promote a society that is more just if the values are just in themselves. On the other hand, if they are unjust, they end up creating a society that is unjust – much of what we currently see at the moment. The contemporary understanding of the American dream has led to the creation of an u nfair society. Those with the power and mandate to change and remake the American society that upholds democratic values and norms must do so via active participation and critical reflection. The American Dream essay depicts a dream about life which is fuller and richer for every citizen regardless of birth circumstances or social stature. Unmistakably, countless Americans are by now weary and mistrustful of the contemporary interpretation of the American Dream. ... In simple terms, the American Dream as envisioned by our Forefathers was that every person has the God-given right to his liberty, life and pursuit of happiness – devoid of any form of interference. It is quite unfortunate that top in government’s agenda is wealth redistribution. As it appears, through subsequent brainwashing, people who have become dependent on government benefits have failed to comprehend that no cause should validate the infringement of the rights in addition to freedoms stipulated above (Schnell 322). It is time that everyone rejected the notion put forward by progressives that the Dream is about receiving security, privileges and benefits from the government of politicians. The American Dream should entail liberty. In essence, the foundation of the American Dream proffers that liberty has to be placed higher up there than the rest of the objectives. In essence, the underlying premise of this Dream is that liberty be given a higher priority compared to any other objective. The government has the mandate to protect the god-given rights that every human being inherits during their birth. America’s Founding Fathers never envisioned that the government will be the one to give rights to its subjects. Their main objective was to limit the powers of the government. This is what gave birth to the famous American Dream. Any law that permits allows the government to take people’s property without their permission no matter what, is immoral and unconstitutional. Presently, the American government is still winning its tender offer to American citizens: security in place of freedom. Any sensible American should ask himself or herself: Are these government benefits worth if it is likely that future generation may live in a police state due to the

Starting and Developing a New Venture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Starting and Developing a New Venture - Essay Example In the case of Haji he started Easy jet airliners after leaving Stelmar Tankers, his own shipping company by persuading Lucas to lend him ?5 million. He started Easy jet a low cost budget airline using two rented 737s and ?29 one-way fares to Glasgow. By starting Easy jet Haji was not bowing to the pressures of risk but took an imperative measure even though he had been charged earlier with counts of poor maintenance of his vessels and manslaughter. Moreover he started Easy jet by borrowing money. It is a known fact that borrowed money attracts interest and the principal money has to be paid and therefore it becomes, quite impossible to get promising returns in the first years of business. In his autobiography Richard Branson reckons that his passion in doing business is motivated by setting huge goals that are apparently unachievable, and staying focused to rise above them. This shows that Branson was aware of the risks involved in a huge venture when he set up Virgin Atlantics. Bes ides in 1993, Branson took the greatest risk by venturing into the railway business. This project was very costly and most people though he would not make it. It goes without taking that Branson and Haji took a partial path when it came to risks and only took the initiative of such ventures when they deemed them worthwhile in the long run. LOCUS OF CONTROL The locus of control is the power in the principle that one can formulate and implement things. Most entrepreneurs have a high locus but in most cases they are poor in delegating duties. They are upbeat when it comes to venturing into business. They tend to be more practical and positive about their business ventures. In 1993, Branson took what most people thought was a very risky:... Curiosity and creativity is the quintessence of entrepreneurism. New products, new solutions and new ways are the core of creativity and in general entrepreneurism. It is about willing to think of all possibilities and opening one’s mind to creative things through being inquisitive of what is going on in the globe and quite often generating a gimmick of stuff that suggests one’s ability to create new products that other people are afraid of thinking. Branson has been termed as one of the new generation of the creative world. He took products that were already in existence and made them look original. He has revolutionized the airline business by integrating it with other business ventures like the Virgin Fuels and Space tourism. Virgin Fuels was designed to respond to global warming and exploit the insistence spikes in fuel expenditures by offering a revolutionary, less costly fuel for machines and, in the near future, aircraft fuel. Branson stated that he was formerly a global skeptic and his decision was influenced by Al Gore.

Professional development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Professional development - Essay Example Unfortunately, there are some factors that disturb necessary reflective practice. At first, time restrictions do not give much air to reflective practice, as I have to solve numerous technical problems that should be settled immediately. Generally, my activity is not supposed to include much time for reflections, and custom practice also demands settling down definite concrete problems, rather than reflection in order to find alternative approaches or theoretical basis for professional strategies. Professional attitudes also comprise various kinds of activity, including technical support and resolving technical questions. Unfortunately, there are very few possibilities to implement mental activity for special theoretical reflections. But I need the time for mental activity, because it pushes me to self-development and this could help me in my professional sphere. In my experience over and over again I face the situations when technology outdoes the practice of tutor. These situations should be regarded from the point of view of the theory that comprises the notions of single-loop learning and double-loop learning. These schemes may be illustrated by examples from my professional experience. An example of single-loop may be a case when I have to print out a poster for a customer. At first, I need to choose a computer which is attached to the device. Then the poster is printed, I roll it up. The next step is to inform the user that the poster is ready and then I bring it to the reception and the customer collection for the user. As for double-loop learning, it is implemented in the case when after a virus that could damage the University system is reported; a team meeting is held out to find the most effective strategy to stop the virus. In this case the decision will depend upon the situation and possible effects. Often I implement reflection-in-action that is often described as thinking and making decisions while the situation unfolds. It involves changing the plans according to the circumstances of the situation. "The practitioner allows himself to experience surprise, puzzlement, or confusion in a situation, which he finds uncertain or unique. He reflects on the phenomenon before him, and on the prior understandings, which have been implicit in his behavior. He carries out an experiment which serves to generate both a new understanding of the phenomenon and a change in the situation." (Schn 1983: 68) Reflection-in-action may be characterized with the help of examples of single and double-loop learning. The former is implemented in the situation when I make copies of Microsoft CDs in QUB without changing the motives and governing variables. Double-loop learning is implemented in situation, when, for instance. A customer requires to provide him with a special equipment to be moved off, because it is old. In such cases I need to use a special program that is called autoclave to format a hard disk to delete the information. After that I contact Belfast City Council to learn about the costs, set a collection time and organize a session, where I will help a customer to get the equipment off. The practice described led me to use and explore the theories of Kolb. In order to make learning more helpful, Kolb (1976) came over with the idea that learners should go through four different stages. These stages are the following: the stage of experience, reflection, the development of new ideas and testing of the new ideas in practice (active

Childhood trauma and Resiliency Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Childhood trauma and Resiliency - Research Paper Example During the aftermath of these events, it is possible that the children cannot sustain psychological well-being. Situations that do not result in a child’s capacity to successfully deal with a traumatic experience could be due to the risk factors that lead to a more difficult recovery (Applied Research and Consulting, LLC et al., 2002). Among the major factors that influence a child’s success in dealing with the trauma are: (1) being a direct witness to the traumatic event, (2) involvement or exposure of a family member to the event, (3) having members of the family dying during such an event, (4) already having a previous mental or psychological problem and (5) having no support network. After traumatic events, some children may require the help of professionals in order to deal with the adverse effects. Children who have faced adverse and traumatic events could go the probabilistic path towards failure and disruption in performance of developmental tasks that increase psychopathology and maladaptation (Cicchetti, 2002). However, not all children who faced trauma, as in the case of abused and neglected children, develop maladaptation. Some children are able to effectively cope and successfully perform the developmental tasks that are required for their age. With time, acute distress could disappear; children cope and grow into competent adults. Many children have risen out of adversity to become highly successful and well-adjusted, leading responsible and fulfilling lives. These children have made the best out of adversity. Some face their trauma head-on, make the most of their lives, and positively influence other people’s lives. Success in the face of adversity has been attributed the development and prevalence of resilience. Resilience is a form of human adaptation arising from mechanisms that result in improving children’s capacity to adapt and cope with traumatic stress and adversity. Resilience has been

To what extent are the different economic reform outcomes in China and Essay

To what extent are the different economic reform outcomes in China and Russia (or plus Eastern Europe) due to the pace of reform - Essay Example Thus, with the help of liberal policies, these economies significantly progressed and grown to match up the growth of the western developed nations. The reform in China had taken place in 1978 but in Russia it took place in 1991. This essay tries to enumerate the contrasting reforming strategies undertaken in Russia and China. The essay will also elaborate the economic outcomes of the reforms. The reforms of China and Russia were both considered to be Communist reforms but the outcomes of the reforms were different in the two countries. After the demise of communism, the reforms of Russia took place at a relatively faster rate. However, in China, the free market oriented reforms took place gradually over years (Eich, Gust and Soto, 2012, p.5-8). The communist government of China has tackled these reforms over years. Thus, it is highly rational to analyze the causes and outcomes of the different pace based reforms in the two countries (Hanson and Teague, 2013, p.3-4). The centrally framed Five-Year plan model of China (1953-1957) was gradually abandoned in 1978, when the country transformed itself into a free market economy. The reforms were undertaken by the Chinese Communist Party for improving the competency of the Chinese economy in terms of a fourfold modernization path. The head of the Communist Party, Premier Zhou Enlai, had claimed that the reforms had aimed to improve the agricultural, industrial, service and technology sectors of the country (Eich, Gust and Soto, 2012, p.9). The first reform in China took place from 1966 to 1976, it was known as the Cultural Revolution. The reform was undertaken for improving the social status of the people of China. Ruthless political power and control imposed on the Chinese individuals were removed through this reform. The second phase of reform took place in 1970, when the officials of the central planning system complained about the inefficiency and weakness of the system (Joshua,

EC Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

EC Law - Essay Example It is evident that the European Union needs to put some laws to prevent companies that produce mobile phones from producing phones with such negative impacts. Although the European Union set up a law on the amount of radiation a phone is expected to emit, the British government has not yet implemented it (Steiner, 2003, pp.51-60). The fact that the British government is reluctant in implementing the law, the French Verizon Phones Sarl company has raised a complaint that the phone companies in British need to adhere to the limit set by the EC laws on radiation. It is doing so because it has adhered to the regulations set. The British government is facing a little bit of set backs since the implementation by mobile phone companies in reducing the emission of radiation form phones will take longer than expected. The idea that implementation will be delayed was given by the UK Federation of Mobile Telephones Retailers (FMTR) as it is the joint body of all manufacturing and retailing phone industries. The federation and the government are working to ensure that the companies adhere to the rules of emission to protect the country form being sued by the French mobile company that has already written a complaint to the European Commission and the Member of the European Parliament (MEP) in the district where it is bas ed (Steiner, 2003, pp.51-60). The Buzz Phone Company is a British company that manufactures phones. The company does not adhere to the radiation limits set in mobile phones. It is faced with very many set backs in trying to adhere to the regulations. It is faced with high production costs due to high levels of unemployment in the area it is situated. For such reasons, it does not have enough money to implement on the regulations of radiations because it is expensive. The French company, Verizon Phones Sarl, has already written to the EU commission on the issue. It is not clear if

Natural monopoly Essay Example for Free

Natural monopoly Essay The concept of â€Å"Natural Monopoly† comes from economics. It is a situation in which majority of the portion of market is covered by a single firm or company. The goods, services or products offered by the company covers the maximum portion of the market. A Natural Monopoly is a situation in which the cost of producing the product (goods or services) is lower due to economies of scale. In a situation of Natural Monopoly, there are no close substitutes to offer the same product or services. Economies of scale is a situation or condition in which the cost to a company of producing or supplying each additional unit of a product or service decreases as the volume of output increases. Economies of scale is not the only reason for the existence of monopoly. A Natural Monopoly also exists because of sole access to a particular resource or technology and because of the use of non-market means to eliminate competition, including buying up competitors and colluding with customers or suppliers to discriminate against competitors. A Natural Monopoly also exists even if there are multiple competitors in the market. In such case, the firm which can attain the largest volume of output and the lowest production cost will be called as a Natural Monopoly. All the other firms will have to exit the industry because they are unable to compete on a price basis. Basically, it is very difficult for any competitor to enter the market of natural monopoly because of very high cost of production facilities which includes the cost of infrastructure. There is also a high uncertainty among the intended competitors that they will be able to oust the existing monopolist. Some of the most commonly used examples for natural monopoly are utilities such as water supply system, electric power transmission system, railroads and pipelines. Though it is very difficult for any intended competitor to enter the market of natural monopoly, but it is very important for us to remember that natural monopoly is not permanent. This is because technological advances can lead to the development of new forms of competition for an industry, change its cost structure and affect the demands for its products. For example, canals were once a natural monopoly for bulk transport in parts of Europe and the U. S. , but these monopolies disintegrated during the nineteenth century as a result of the development of railway.

Irony in Rip Van Winkle

Irony in Rip Van Winkle Washington Irving used so much irony in his short story Rip Van Winkle. The title character is a youthful married Dutch American who has a kind and generous nature. The main character is located in Catskill Mountains of New York way before the American Revolution. Reluctant to profitable labor, the character prefers rambles within the mountains, sitting under the shade gossiping with his buddies moreover, playing with the community children (Irving 105). Washington develops the thesis of the story by use of irony. After meandering with his gun together with Wolf, his close companion, Rip trails himself into the higher parts of the mountains. Soon afterwards, Rip stumbles upon a stranger who was moving what looked like a barrel of liquor. Consequently, with the aid of the Hollands, moreover a whole day of mountain climbing, Rip falls into a solemn, deep slumber. Nevertheless when he wakes up, Rip does not know how long he has been sleeping or where both of his friends have gone off too. He woke up twenty years later, as an aged man and strolls back to his village; he is amazed by the transformations that have occurred. After some commotion, he is joined with his grown-up daughter and her children. The irony is further noticed in Rips coldness to Dame Van Winkle. He was bossed and chided, but he was satisfied. The owner of the bar, Nicholas Vedder dominated the conversations and views of the junto symbolize the colonial governors selected by the Crown. Even as he rarely spoke, his authority was constantly present. This reflects the inactive position the governors accommodated political affairs, as well as the colonists substantial respect for them. (Irving 109) Another irony to reflect on is the ways wherein Irving anticipates lots of of Thoreaus thoughts. Long prior to the retreat to Walden Pond, Washington introduces Rip Van Winkle as a happy mortal, of idiotic, well-oiled characters, who take the humanity easy, eat brown bread or white, any that can be got without difficulty, and would rather go hungry on a penny than labor for a pound which is very ironic. Nathaniel Hawthornes story Young Goodman Brown is saturated, with irony. At the beginning of the narrative a youthful Puritan husband leaves at sunset from his youthful Puritan wife. Faith, like the wife was suitably named, pushes her own appealing head into the street, allowing the wind to play with the pink ribbons which were on her cap, whereas she called to Goodman Brown. Nathaniel Hawthorne says that Faith is appropriately named, an ironic declaration since she later on in the evening, is being acknowledged into the congregation of devil-worshippers as a fresh convert to the evil cluster. The description of faith as pretty as well as her putting on pink ribbons, as a sign of cheerful outlook on life and youthful innocence is also ironic (Hawthorne 405). There is more irony in the Goodman Browns dialogue with the old man. He at first clings to his apparent purity of lineage furthermore claims that his father and grandfather had not deviated from the Puritanical lineage. The old man discovers that not only were his relatives acquainted with the abnormal path but well familiar the devil on an individual level. The irony inside this passage is seen when the devil assists Goodman Browns ancestors during the persecution of Indians and Quakers. There is definitely irony in the fact that it is the majority of the pious church people who emerge at the evil gathering inside the forest. The aged woman who bypasses Young Goodman Brown as well as the devil on the trail is recognized by Brown as the woman who taught her catechism. There is a remarkable irony to this vow because when Goodman Brown came back at dawn; he cannot look at his wife with the identical faith he had before. After Goodman Brown lastly met with the Devil, he asserts that the cause of his lateness was because Faith kept him back awhile. This proclamation has a double implication because his wife actually prevented him from being punctual for his meeting as well as his faith to God expressively delayed his gathering with the devil as well (Hawthorne 409). All through The Cask Of Amontillado, Poe uses dramatic and verbal irony to construct suspense, foreshadow the ending, and moreover add a touch of ghoulish humor. For instance the title cask meaning wine barrel is resulting from the same root statement used to structure casket, which means coffin. Accordingly, the cask symbolically represents Fortunatos casket. Secondly, Fortunatos name which is Italian implies good fortune, luck. Nevertheless, Fortunato is so unfortunate because he was heading to his death. Another element of irony is Fortunatos Costume. He dresses as a court clown. His celebratory outfit contrasts with the terrible fate that awaits him. Moreover, occasionally, the bell on top of his cone-shaped hat tinkles a nice comic feeling from Poe. Another aspect of irony is when Fortunato asks Montresor if he is a mason, signifying a member of the fraternal array of Freemasonry. It is ironic that Montresor says he is certainly a mason. Nevertheless, he is using the expression to mean a craftsman who constructs buildings using (Cecil 41). Poe also uses irony repeatedly in the dialogue. For instance, when Montresor meets Fortunato, he tells him that he is lucky they met. Later on, when Montresor pretends to be worried about Fortunatos scything cough as they go down into the tombs, he tells him that they have to go back because his health is precious. Fortunato tells him not to worry because the cough will not kill him. Montresor quickly agrees that the cough will not kill him; the audience can nearly see a devilish gleam within Montresors eyes, because he surely knew that Fortunato will die. He later opens a bottle of wine furthermore toasts Fortunato to his long life.

A military technology

A military technology CDMA is a military technology first used during World War II by English allies to foil German attempts at jamming transmissions. The allies decided to transmit over several frequencies, instead of one, making it difficult for the Germans to pick up the complete signal. Because Qualcomm created communications chips for CDMA technology, it was privy to the classified information. Once the information became public, Qualcomm claimed patents on the technology and became the first to commercialize it. Code Division Multiple Access technology emerged as an alternative to the GSM cellular architecture and has shared in the past decades explosive growth in the wireless market. CDMA, like GSM, has seen incremental improvements in capacity throughout this period. Now both types of networks are making a transition to third-generation (3G) systems around the globe, offering yet more capacity and data services. INTRODUCTION With the advent of wireless communication there was the advent of the two technologies for the cellular communication. They were the CDMA and the GSM technology. Both the technologies have their own mechanisms of working and their own pros and cons for which they have their own different utilizations and implications.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The technology on which our group has proposed to research is the CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) technology. Though the total users of the CDMA technology around the globe are approximately 14% yet it has many advantages over the GSM technology which has enormous number of users. Actually the GSM technology is easy to manage and to handle rather than CDMA but that doesnt mean that it has got no future. Truly speaking the CDMA technology is the technology of the future. Gradually its gaining popularity in the European market. What is CDMA? CDMA (Code-Division Multiple Access) refers to any of several protocols used in so-called second-generation (2G) and third-generation (3G) wireless communications. As the term implies, CDMA is a form of multiplexing, which allows numerous signals to occupy a single transmission channel, optimizing the use of available bandwidth. The technology is used in ultra-high-frequency (UHF) cellular telephone systems in the 800-MHz and 1.9-GHz bands. CDMA employs analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) in combination with spread spectrum technology. Audio input is first digitized into binary elements. The frequency of the transmitted signal is then made to vary according to a defined pattern (code), so it can be intercepted only by a receiver whose frequency response is programmed with the same code, so it follows exactly along with the transmitter frequency. There are trillions of possible frequency-sequencing codes, which enhance privacy and makes cloning difficult. The CDMA channel is nominally 1.23 MHz wide. CDMA networks use a scheme called soft handoff, which minimizes signal breakup as a handset passes from one cell to another. The combination of digital and spread-spectrum modes supports several times as many signals per unit bandwidth as analog modes. CDMA is compatible with other cellular technologies; this allows for nationwide roaming. The original CDMA standard, also known as CDMA One and still common in cellular telephones in the U.S., offers a transmission speed of only up to 14.4 Kbps in its single channel form and up to 115 Kbps in an eight-channel form. CDMA2000 and wideband CDMA deliver data many times faster. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a digital air interface standard, claiming eight to fifteen times the capacity of traditional analog cellular systems. It employs a commercial adaptation of a military spread-spectrum technology. Based on spread spectrum theory, it gives essentially the same services and qualities as wireline service. The primary difference is that access to the local exchange carrier (LEC) is provided via a wireless phone. Though CDMAs application in cellular telephony is relatively new, it is not a new technology. CDMA has been used in many military applications, such as: Anti-jamming (because of the spread signal, it is difficult to jam or interfere with a CDMA signal). Ranging (measuring the distance of the transmission to know when it will be received). Secure communications (the spread spectrum signal is very hard to detect). CDMA is a spread spectrum technology, which means that it spreads the information contained in a particular signal of interest over a much greater bandwidth than the original signal. With CDMA, unique digital codes, rather than separate RF frequencies or channels, are used to differentiate subscribers. The codes are shared by both the mobile station (cellular phone) and the base station, and are called pseudo-random code sequences. Since each user is separated by a unique code, all users can share the same frequency band (range of radio spectrum). This gives many unique advantages to the CDMA technique over other RF techniques in cellular communication. CDMA is a digital multiple access technique and this cellular aspect of the protocol is specified by the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) as IS-95. In CDMA, the BSSAP is divided into the DTAP and BSMAP (which corresponds to BSSMAP in GSM). Generating a CDMA signal There are five steps in generating a CDMA signal. analog to digital conversion vocoding encoding and interleaving channelizing the signals conversion of the digital signal to a Radio Frequency (RF) signal The use of codes is a key part of this process. How CDMA is altering the face of cellular and PCS communication? CDMA is altering the face of cellular and PCS communication by: Dramatically improving the telephone traffic capacity Dramatically improving the voice quality and eliminating the audible effects of multipath fading Reducing the incidence of dropped calls due to handoff failures Providing reliable transport mechanism for data communications, such as facsimile and internet traffic Reducing the number of sites needed to support any given amount of traffic Simplifying site selection Reducing deployment and operating costs because fewer cell sites are needed Reducing average transmitted power Reducing interference to other electronic devices Reducing potential health risks Commercially introduced in 1995, CDMA quickly became one of the worlds fastest-growing wireless technologies. In 1999, the International Telecommunications Union selected CDMA as the industry standard for new third-generation (3G) wireless systems. Many leading wireless carriers are now building or upgrading to 3G CDMA networks in order to provide more capacity for voice traffic, along with high-speed data capabilities. CDMA is a form of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum communications. In general, Spread Spectrum communications is distinguished by three key elements: The signal occupies a bandwidth much greater than that which is necessary to send the information. This results in many benefits, such as immunity to interference and jamming and multi-user access, which well discuss later on. The bandwidth is spread by means of a code which is independent of the data. The independence of the code distinguishes this from standard modulation schemes in which the data modulation will always spread the spectrum somewhat. The receiver synchronizes to the code to recover the data. The use of an independent code and synchronous reception allows multiple users to access the same frequency band at the same time. In order to protect the signal, the code used is pseudo-random. It appears random, but is actually deterministic, so that the receiver can reconstruct the code for synchronous detection. This pseudo-random code is also called pseudo-noise (PN). There are three ways to spread the bandwidth of the signal: Frequency hopping. The signal is rapidly switched between different frequencies within the hopping bandwidth pseudo-randomly, and the receiver knows before hand where to find the signal at any given time. Time hopping. The signal is transmitted in short bursts pseudo-randomly, and the receiver knows beforehand when to expect the burst. Direct sequence. The digital data is directly coded at a much higher frequency. The code is generated pseudo-randomly, the receiver knows how to generate the same code, and correlates the received signal with that code to extract the data. HOW SPREAD SPECTRUM WORKS? Spread Spectrum uses wide band, noise-like signals. Because Spread Spectrum signals are noise-like, they are hard to detect. Spread Spectrum signals are also hard to Intercept or demodulate. Further, Spread Spectrum signals are harder to jam (interfere with) than narrowband signals. These Low Probability of Intercept (LPI) and anti-jam (AJ) features are why the military has used Spread Spectrum for so many years. Spread signals are intentionally made to be much wider band than the information they are carrying to make them more noise-like. Spread Spectrum signals use fast codes that run many times the information bandwidth or data rate. These special Spreading codes are called Pseudo Random or Pseudo Noise codes. They are called Pseudo because they are not real Gaussian noise. Spread Spectrum transmitters uses similar transmit power levels to narrow band transmitters. Because Spread Spectrum signals are so wide, they transmit at a much lower spectral power density, measured in Watts per Hertz, than narrowband transmitters. This lower transmitted power density characteristic gives spread signals a big plus. Spread and narrow band signals can occupy the same band, with little or no interference. This capability is the main reason for all the interest in Spread Spectrum today. IMPLEMENTATION OF CDMA TECHNOLOGY Now a day, in large organization the communication process has to be fast and efficient. There are the major points that have to be taken care in the modern corporate culture. Over time, more and more demands have been made on the capabilities of corporate networks. Workers want more mobility; secure, high-speed access; and an extension of applications across the enterprise, all of which can strain current IT capabilities. The first and foremost of all is protecting corporate network assets is an ongoing task for IT professionals. Increased worker mobility and mobile workers needs for immediate, secure access to critical business information add challenges to maintaining network security Some of todays top security issues and concerns are: Unauthorized systems and network access Auditability and compliance Customer data breaches Internal and external sabotage Theft of intellectual property and confidential business information Cost of mobile device administration The following diagram illustrates many elements critical to mobile data security. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GSM AND CDMA TECHNOLOGY In cellular service there are two main competing network technologies: Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) and Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA). Cellular carriers including Sprint PCS, Cingular Wireless, Verizon and T-Mobile use one or the other. Understanding the difference between GSM and CDMA will allow you to choose a carrier that uses the preferable network technology for your needs. The GSM Association is an international organization founded in 1987, dedicated to providing, developing, and overseeing the worldwide wireless standard of GSM. CDMA, a proprietary standard designed by Qualcomm in the United States, has been the dominant network standard for North America and parts of Asia. However, GSM networks continue to make inroads in the United States, as CDMA networks make progress in other parts of the world. There are camps on both sides that firmly believe either GSM or CDMA architecture is superior to the other. That said, to the non-invested consumer who simply wants bottom line information to make a choice, the following considerations may be helpful. Coverage The most important factor is getting service in the areas you will be using your phone. Upon viewing competitors coverage maps you may discover that only GSM or CDMA carriers offer cellular service in your area. If so, there is no decision to be made, but most people will find that they do have a choice. Data Transfer Speed With the advent of cellular phones doing double and triple duty as streaming video devices, podcast receivers and email devices, speed is important to those who use the phone for more than making calls. CDMA has been traditionally faster than GSM, though both technologies continue to rapidly leapfrog along this path. Both boast 3G standards, or 3rd generation technologies. EVDO, also known as CDMA2000, is CDMAs answer to the need for speed with a downstream rate of about 2 megabits per second, though some reports suggest real world speeds are closer to 300-700 kilobits per second (kbps). This is comparable to basic DSL. As of fall 2005, EVDO is in the process of being deployed. It is not available everywhere and requires a phone that is CDMA2000 ready. GSMs answer is EDGE (Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution), which boasts data rates of up to 384 kbps with real world speeds reported closer to 70-140 kbps. With added technologies still in the works that include UMTS (Universal Mobile Telephone Standard) and HSDPA (High Speed Downlink Packet Access), speeds reportedly increase to about 275à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬380 kbps. This technology is also known as W-CDMA, but is incompatible with CDMA networks. An EDGE-ready phone is required. In the case of EVDO, theoretical high traffic can degrade speed and performance, while the EDGE network is more susceptible to interference. Both require being within close range of a cell to get the best speeds, while performance decreases with distance. Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) cards In the United States only GSM phones use SIM cards. The removable SIM card allows phones to be instantly activated, interchanged, swapped out and upgraded, all without carrier intervention. The SIM itself is tied to the network, rather than the actual phone. Phones that are card-enabled can be used with any GSM carrier. The CDMA equivalent, a R-UIM card, is only available in parts of Asia but remains on the horizon for the U.S. market. CDMA carriers in the U.S. require proprietary handsets that are linked to one carrier only and are not card-enabled. To upgrade a CDMA phone, the carrier must deactivate the old phone then activate the new one. The old phone becomes useless. Roaming For the most part, both networks have fairly concentrated coverage in major cities and along major highways. GSM carriers, however, have roaming contracts with other GSM carriers, allowing wider coverage of more rural areas, generally speaking, often without roaming charges to the customer. CDMA networks may not cover rural areas as well as GSM carriers, and though they may contract with GSM cells for roaming in more rural areas, the charge to the customer will generally be significantly higher. International Roaming If you need to make calls to other countries, a GSM carrier can offer international roaming, as GSM networks dominate the world market. If you travel to other countries you can even use your GSM cell phone abroad, providing it is a quad-band phone (850/900/1800/1900 MHz). By purchasing a SIM card with minutes and a local number in the country you are visiting, you can make calls against the card to save yourself international roaming charges from your carrier back home. CDMA phones that are not card-enabled do not have this capability, however there are several countries that use CDMA networks. Check with your CDMA provider for your specific requirements. According CDG.org, CDMA networks support over 270 million subscribers worldwide, while GSM.org tallies up their score at over 1 billion. As CDMA phones become R-UIM enabled and roaming contracts between networks improve, integration of the standards might eventually make differences all but transparent to the consumer. The chief GSM carriers in the United States are Cingular Wireless, recently merged with ATT Wireless, and T-Mobile USA. Major CDMA carriers are Sprint PCS, Verizon and Virgin Mobile. There are also several smaller cellular companies on both networks.

The Lust For Power: How Politics And Personal Relations Become One Essa

The Lust For Power: How Politics and Personal Relations Become One   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The stories of the Bible reveal a pattern of â€Å"ups and downs† for the nation of Israel. A period of prosperity, faithfulness and fearing God would almost always be followed by a period of destitution, lawlessness and idolatry. This recurring cycle can be linked to political authority, and the level of separation of political authority from other influences. The successful struggle for liberation under the leadership of Moses and the glorious conquest of Canaan under Joshua instilled a fresh breeze of hope and a renewed faith in God in the nation of Israel. Guided by God, the nation of Israel met with unprecedented success as they journeyed to the promised land. During this time, political authority among the Israelites rested in the hands of patriarchs, or prominent members within the tribes. These men were righteous figures of authority, chosen by God, to lead His people and to teach His ways. The success that swept over the Israelites was short-lived, however, and for the next two hundred years the people of Israel struggled against neighboring tribes. The new generation of Israelites â€Å"knew neither the Lord nor what he did for Israel† (Judges 2:10). They began to â€Å"do evil in the eyes of the Lord† by worshipping other gods and engaging in various sexual activities. To save His people from their enemies and from their â€Å"evil ways,† God â€Å"raised up† judges to rescue them (Judges 2:16). These so-called judges had the political authority vested in them to lead the people of Israel and to save them from their sins. They mobilized the people of Israel against invasions of the tribes all around them. At this time, the nation of Israel was nothing more than a loose confederation of twelve tribes. Israel had no central authority, which meant no unity, no organization and no power. During the period of the judges, there was no need for a central government, because the people of Israel were able to defend their tribal territories effectively against adjoining peoples. Whenever there was a threat from a neighboring tribe, God sent a judge to lead the Israelites against their enemies. As this era came to an end, however, the Israelites were faced with a much larger problem - the Philistines' military threat. As the Israelites were elimina... ... fighting for it. The judges were sent to lead the Israelites in times of need and emergency. Their leadership was only ephemeral, and thus not one of them were able to gain an exorbitant amount of political power. When the period of the monarchy was firmly in place, however, there was a system of succession of power. Even before the king muttered his last words, there were peopleeagerly waiting in line to take his place. And if that wasn't enough, people were plotting against the king in hopes of succeeding the throne, even his own sons. This feature of the period of the monarchy allowed for the mixing and intertwining of politics and personal relations. The use of women as symbols of power and dominance became abundant as kings challenged the prospective successors, and as prospective successors challenged the kings. Events took place that can be compared to episodes of TV soap operas or Melrose Place. Politics and personal relations became interrelated, and above all else, the underlying reason was power. As people began to lust for power, for wealth, and for recognition, the association of the two became imminent, and the separation of the two became impossible.

Saving Lancaster :: essays papers

Saving Lancaster There are problems facing people everyday, some worse than others, but none anymore pleasant. We see problems ranging from the environment to crime, gangs, diseases, wars and so many more. William Finnegan saw a major problem arising for the residents of Lancaster, California where he went to find out why two skin head gangs are so prevalent in the area. Parents working low wage jobs for long hours far from home made absent parents a huge problem as well as lack of education greatly due to poor funding. Finding the causes of large social problems helps to discover solutions and get people thinking about problems instead of just accepting them. A solution that would have a large impact on the city would be to use cooperate welfare to bring big business to the area, because it will help create local jobs, a circulation of money, and more money for better educational facilities and teachers. Many people would agree that Cooperate welfare is a problem in it self and are strongly against it. However, it is very common and does serve positive purposes. Cooperate welfare gives tax breaks and other incentives to encourage big businesses to come to a certain area. If the Antelope Valley could get businesses into the over populated city they would be able to provide local jobs for many families. This is important, because many of the parents in the valley are just making enough to get by. Both parents are usually forced to work and a major percentage of these families are single parent households with one income. They end up working long hours at low wages and for that reason are unable to be home for their children. The children begin going elsewhere to look for a place of company after school. Education starts in the home, so already they are losing out on half of the valuable education they need. Funding for schools comes from the government and it's obvious that richer areas have better schools. Cooperate welfare would bring more money to the area which would provide better funding for schools. Once a better educational system is established the schools can work on programs teaching kids about ignorance and racism at an early age. Also, providing sport teams, music classes, and other activities for children to get involved in would help keep more kids in school. Teen boredom seemed to be another major factor driving teens to the gang life. Getting businesses like dance clubs for minors, boys and girls clubs, movie theaters, shopping

Graduation Speech: We are Blessed to Live in the USA :: Graduation Speech, Commencement Address

Dear fellow students, faculty, friends, and family, My name is Sam Myers and I'm from Albania. Coming here was a great experience for me. I grew up in a poor country where the chances to get a good education were extremely limited. I went to schools with broken windows, and did homework by candlelight because we had no power. I was raised in a simple family by parents who loved me dearly, cared for me, and taught me life values that I carry with me. I wish they were here today. My parents had no educational background and could barely read or write. I had nothing compared to what young people in America have. But my parents communicated to me the importance of a good education, and today I am graduating from Marefat Community College in the United States of America. What a huge difference! The fall of communism in Albania in 1990 brought Albanians hope for the future. As every young man, I had dreams and one of them was studying abroad. God brought me here in a miraculous way. While providing medical care for the Kosovo refugees during the war of 1999, I met the people who provided the financial support I needed to come to America. It was exciting and scary at the same time. I had lived all my life with my family in the same country, but it was time for big changes and new adventures. I cherish the wonderful feelings of my first days on the Marefat campus. The easy access of many resources on campus including the library, computer labs, and many others made my learning process easy. I have learned that the key to success is working hard and focusing on your goal. Despite the many distractions this country offered me, I reminded myself that I had a goal to reach and I was here for a specific purpose. Marefat Community College opened many new doors for my future. One of my greatest experiences was working at the Office of Student Life as a student programmer. I learned to work in a business environment, coordinating events and communicating with students and staff. Working as a team with students from different cultures and backgrounds opened my eyes to get a better picture of the world. For the first time in my life, I met people who did not look like me. As I got to know them, I was able to break the stereotypes I had built growing up in a country that was closed to the rest of the world for 50 years.

Psychological Assessment Essay

Organisations worldwide are currently facing increasing competition, price pressures and slowergrowth rates and in order to be successful, for many organisations, this prompts the need to constantly change to survive. Having the right employee fit-for-purpose is imperative to the success of an organisation faced with such challenges. The use of psychological assessment is a key enabler for the appropriate selection and development of employees in the workplace to meet the constant changes in the internal and external economic and social environment (Bartram, 2004; Paterson &Uys, 2005). However, the nature and value of current day psychological assessment needs to be assessed as it faces many challenges, particularly in a South African context that is influenced by political injustices of the past. Psychological test use in South Africa currently faces many challenges including the adaptation of tests in a multicultural context, language, age and gender barriers and other measurement challenges (Foxcroft, 2004; Foxcroft, 2006). These challenges introduce criticism of the fairness and ethical practices of psychological assessment and highlight the need  for enhancing fairness in assessment and developing equitable and unbiased psychological tests (Foxcroft, 2011; Paterson & Uys, 2005). In order to respond to these challenges, it is important to gain an understanding of how psychological assessments have developed over the years so that meaningful changes can be made ((Foxcroft, Roodt & Abrahams, 2005). It is important to reflect on the history and development of psychological assessment as it helps explain how and why it is currently practiced, it allows for critical analysis of psychological assessment, identifying the strengths and weaknesses  of tests used today and provides lessons to be learned from the weaknesses and injustices of past assessment practices so that psychologists can develop new assessment tools and techniques and ensure fair and ethical social practices of psychological assessment (Gregory, 2000; Moerdyk, 2009). The perceptions of psychological assessment being unfair and biased are slowly changing as improvements are made in the development of tests and in South Africa this is closely linked to the developments and changes in legislation and the professional bodies that govern the control and use of  psychological assessments (Mauer, 2000; Paterson & Uys, 2005). The objective of this discussion is to evaluate the nature and value of psychological assessment practices in the South African work context by critically reflecting on the historical developments that have shaped and influenced current psychological assessment, focusing onhow test use have been transformed by legislation, government and society and the challenges that exist for fair and unbiased psychological assessment in South Africa. Finally, the ways in which fairness and bias in testing is currently being addressed and the steps in developing further ethical practices of  psychological assessment will be discussed. This discussion will also include an overview of psychological assessment STUDENT NO: 44674481 4 and clarification of central concepts such as psychometrics, testing, measurement and evaluation, fairness and bias. 1. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT? 1. 1. DEFINING PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT Foxcroft & Roodt (2005, p. 4), define psychological assessment as a â€Å"†¦ process-oriented activity aimed at gathering a wide array of information by using assessment measures (tests) and information from many other sources.. † in order to make inferences about human behaviour. Shepard & Spalding (as cited in Setshedi, 2008) note that psychological assessments make use of standardised instruments, which, combined with other sources of information, are evaluated to inform some intervention. 1. 2. THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT AND RELATED TERMS Psychological assessment refers to the overall multidimensional process that uses tools (tests) and techniques for measurement and evaluation of human behaviour (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2005). Psychological assessment can be distinguished from some related terms commonly used, such as, psychometrics, testing, psychometric testing,  measurement and evaluation. 1. 2. 1. Measurement and Assessment Measurement refers to the ‘how much’ in an assessment. When doing an assessment, psychologists use measurement to ascribe values or numbers to a phenomenon against certain criteria or standardized norms, following predefined rules (Moerdyk, 2009). Measurement therefore helps in gathering information to add to the holistic assessment of a phenomenon. 1. 2. 2. Evaluation and Assessment Evaluation refers to â€Å"†¦interpreting or attaching a judgemental value to an assessment†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Moerdyk, 2009, p. 4). In other  words, evaluation refers to reaching conclusions about the measurement outcomes (Moerdyk, 2009). Thus evaluation forms part of the process of the overall assessment. STUDENT NO: 44674481 5 1. 2. 3. Psychometrics and Assessment Psychometrics is the subfield of psychology that refers to the use of scientific methods, theory and techniques used in psychological measurement (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2005). Psychologists base their assessments on these scientific ways of measurement in an attempt to learn more about or predict behaviour. Thus psychological assessment is informed by the study of Psychometrics (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2005). 1. 2. 4. Testing and Assessment Testing refers to the use of a tool (for example, psychometric tests, scales, or instruments) to inform decision making (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2005; Moerdyk, 2009; Patterson & Uys, 2005). Tests are not used in isolation but as part of the bigger process of assessment in order to make fair and informed decisions. Patterson & Uys (2005) argue that assessment is the overall process which includes testing, but more than testing, it implies the holistic evaluation based on test results and other information from other assessment methods. 1. 2. 5. Psychometric Testing and Assessment. Psychometric testing refers to testing based on psychometric theory and practices and is mainly used in industries for recruitment, selection and counselling purposes (Gregory, 2000). According to van der Merwe (2002), psychometric testing can be a useful tool in making decisions about management of employees and if used appropriately with insight and sensitivity it can become one of the most effective ways in predicting behavior that is not surfaced during screening interviews. In South Africa psychometric testing is regulated by the Employee Equity Act of 1998 which prohibits the use  of psychometric tests or assessments unless it proves to be scientifically valid and reliable, is fair and free from bias (Foxcroft et al, 2005). 1. 3. THE USE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT Psychologists use techniques and tools in assessment in attempts to gain a better understanding of human behaviour, to describe certain phenomenon, as well as topredict future behaviour. Psychological assessments are also used to identify and plan interventions to change behaviour and in decision making (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2005; Moerdyk, 2009). Some of the main areas of assessment are cognitive, behavioural and personality assessment (Moerdyk, 2009). 1. 4. THE VALUE OF PSYCHOLIGICAL ASSESSMENT IN INDUSTRY Organisations benefit from psychological assessments as it aids in making clear and informed decisions in managing STUDENT NO: 44674481 6 human resources. Bartram (2004, p. 238) highlights the value of assessments in personnel selection enabling â€Å"†¦organisations to act both tactically and strategically to increase their effectiveness†. Psychometric tests make it possible for organisations to measure attributes that can’t easily be assessed at face value but that may be crucial in job performance, such as personality and leadership assessments (Moerdyk, 2009). Assessments are also used to measure work performance to identify training needs (Moerdyk, 2009), management and leadership assessments to inform development plans (Bartram, 2004), as well as assessments to improve employee wellness (Moerdyk, 2009). Assessments can also inform career counselling needs, career and organisational development plans, and research (Moerdyk, 2009). 2. FAIRNESS AND BIAS IN SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT From the above it is clear that there is a need for psychological assessments in the workplace for organisations and individuals to benefit from human resource management. However psychological assessment practices over the years have drawn attention to bias in testing and fairness and ethical issues in assessment. The developments of psychological testing and assessment practices in South Africa will be further discussed to show how historically assessments have been unfair and bias and how this has been addressed in current practices. First it is important to clarify what is meant by fairness and bias in testing and assessment. 2. 1. THE CONCEPT OF FAIRNESS AND BIAS Bias can be defined as the â€Å"systemic error in measurement or research that affects one group (e. g. race, age, and  gender) more than another† (Moerdyk, p. 261). In the work context this means that the psychometric tests that are administered to people need to measure what it’s supposed to measure and it needs to be consistent and systematic in measurement across different groups. Bias in testing can be controlled through the use of statistical procedures or other objective measures (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2005; Moerdyk, 2009). Fairness refers to the equitable nature of the psychological assessment processes and procedures and the lack of bias in testing methods and interpretation. Fairness is both subjective and contextual as can be seen in South Africa where  the use of affirmative action is used in human resource practices to address discrimination in past assessment practices. To be fair to previously disadvantaged groups it has become necessary to select and develop employees that score lower on tests. This raises the debate of whether the previously advantaged groups are now being unfairly treated. There is the option of treating both groups fairly, however it does not resolve the unfair, bias and discriminatory practices of the past (Moerdyk, 2009). STUDENT NO: 44674481 7 Both fairness and bias are important in psychological assessment in South Africa and are governed and regulated at the  individual (practitioner) level, through professional bodies as well as through legislation. Fairness and bias in assessment has been a challenge in South Africa and has been shaped and influenced particularly by the political ideologies through time. These challenges in fair and unbiased testing and the development of psychological test methods inSouth Africa will now be further explored. 2. 2. THE DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT PRACTICES IN SOUTH AFRICA 2. 2. 1. Early Use (Pre-Apartheid Era) of Psychological Assessments The early developments of psychological assessments in South Africa were introduced in the twentieth century and  followed closely with the developments internationally (Painter & Terre Blanche, 2004). The psychological tests that were introduced at the time in the country were largely influenced by the political context (Foxcroft et al, 2005). South Africa was a British colony and thus the psychological tests used were influenced by the political ideologies of the British rule and focused on assisting in the regulation of differential treatment (Louw, 2002). Most of the tests that were administered were for whites only and were based on either adaptations of international tests (e. g. Stanford-Binet adaptation) or were  developed specifically for use in South Africa (e. g. South African Group Test). Other examples include the study by Fick, who measured intellectual abilities across different race groups using tests that was standardized for whites and concluded that whites had superior intellect. This study influenced the Bantu Education system but the limitations of the study were also highly criticised (Foxcroft et al, 2005). Thus in this era of British colonial rule, tests in South Africa were biased, discriminatory against other races and psychological assessments ignored the influence of other social factors on  test performance such as poverty, language, culture, etc. (Claassen, 1997; Foxcroft et al, 2005; Louw, 2002). 2. 2. 2. Development of Tests During the Apartheid Era In the early 1900s the political rule in South Africa was based on laws of segregation (apartheid) which believed that blacks and whites were different and should be treated differently (Claassen, 1997; Louw & van Hoorn,1997). Thus, most of the tests that were used supported the regulation of legislature that encouraged such thinking (Foxcroft et al, 2005; Louw & van Hoorn, 1997). Between the two world wars, research started to focus on understanding the â€Å"Native† and psychology aimed to support the government and apartheid rule (Louw & van Hoorn, 1997). After the Second World War, assessments focused on suitable placements of blacks in the workplace, and tests such as the General Adaptability STUDENT NO: 44674481 8 Battery (GAB) were used. In this era, tests were used without adapting to South African norms, on whites, such as the Otis Mental Ability Test (Foxcroft et al, 2005). Between the 1960’s and 1990’s institutes were formed (National Institute for Personnel Research, Institute for Psychological and Edumetric Research) as well as changes in legislation were made to regulate the administration of  psychological assessments. The Health Professions Act 56 of 1974 regulated that only psychologists were allowed to administer psychological assessments. Radical changes in the socio-political situation started in the 1980’s and apartheid rules started to soften. Different races started to compete for positions in the workplace and this raised concerns about the test measures that were being used. Tests such as the General Scholastic Aptitude Test (GSAT), the Ability Processing of Information and Learning Battery (APIL-B) and the Pencil and Paper Games were introduced to address these concerns. The Pencil and PaperGames was made available in all 11 languages in South Africa to address bias and application in a multicultural context. These tests however we criticised as it was based on inappropriate norms. As the apartheid regime came to an end, psychological assessment was held under much scepticism and negative perceptions were developed because of the discriminatory nature and use of tests at that time (Foxcroft et al, 2005; Van de Vijver & Rothman, 2004). 2. 2. 3. Development of Tests in Post Apartheid Era After the abolition of the apartheid era, South Africa became a country based on democracy and radical changes were  made in political policy and legislation to address the wrongs of the past (Foxcroft et al, 2005). Psychological assessment was held under much criticism and the changes in constitution and legislation lead to a major shift in the approach of testing in South Africa. Some of the issues that were highlighted in the practices of testing during the apartheid era were the discriminatory use of tests, the lack of applicability in a multicultural context creating bias, as well as other ethical issues such as the use of inappropriate norms and standards (Foxcroft et al, 2005). The changes in politics will now be  further discussed to show how it addressed the above issues and regulates fair, ethical and unbiased assessments in current society. 2. 3. ENHANCING FAIRNESS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT IN SOUTH AFRICA 2. 3. 1. Changes in Constitution Chapter 2 of the South African Constitution addresses the Bill of Rights, which calls for democracy based on dignity, equality and freedom. Furthermore, Section 9 of the Bill of Rights states that no persons may be subject to unfair STUDENT NO: 44674481 9 discrimination or unfairly discriminate unto others (Mauer, 2000). This means that no tests may be used to discriminate  against any individual, group or institution and called for fair assessment approaches. Psychological assessments therefore are required to aim to eliminate any bias in testing. Thus a dynamic and multicultural assessment approach is necessary which encourages the development of culture-specific and culture-informed psychological practices for the various cultural groups in South Africa (Van de Vijver & Rothman, 2004). 2. 3. 2. The Labour Relations Act (66 of 1995) The Labour Relations Act (66 of 1995) (LRA) protects individuals against unfair labour practices and discrimination in the  workplace (Mauer, 2000). This has an impact on the ethical considerations of organisations when employing psychological assessments. Joiner (2000) provides guidelines for fair and ethical practices in psychological assessment which ensures that psychologists take responsibility in assessments protecting the rights of individuals, treating individuals fairly, and not misusing the information from test results. Both the constitution and LRA address unfair discrimination and allow for fair discrimination if it can be proven that the discrimination is fair. 2. 3. 3. The Employment Equity Act (55 of 1998) The Employment Equity Act (55 of 1998) (EEA) enforces fair, unbiased and equitable practices in psychological testing by regulating the requirements of tests. The Act clearly states that psychological testing and other forms of assessment is prohibited unless it can be scientifically proven to be valid and reliable, can be applied fairly and is unbiased to any employee or group. The impacts of this act means that psychological tests need to be cross-culturally applicable (Foxcroft et al, 2005). Foxcroft (2004) highlights the need for more tests to be developed in South Africa that can be used  in a multicultural context. Organisations need to take cognisance of the above legislation that regulates fair and unbiased practices of assessment and should aim to practice testing ethically by ensuring that the rights of individuals are protected, the processes of assessment is fair, confidentiality of individuals is protected, individuals are given feedback to assessments, and the outcomes of assessment is not harmful to the individuals (Moerdyk, 2009). In line with the LRA the EEA also allows for fair discrimination in employment, specifically affirmative action if used in  accordance with the Act. It also allows for fair discrimination in employment based on criteria that are inherent to the job which means that the assessment tools used to assess individuals need to assess evidence of these criteria. 2. 3. 4. Professional Bodies Other bodies such as the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA), the Professional Board of Psychology STUDENT NO: 44674481 10 and the Board for Personnel Practitioners govern the practice of psychological assessment in South Africa to ensure fair and ethical approaches in psychology (Moerdyk, 2009; Wassenaar, 1998). Psychological tests can only be administered by individuals professionally registered with the HPCSA, which provides professional guidance and advice for the use of psychological assessments (form 208). The HPCSA regulates the training of professionals, the development of psychological tests and the use of psychological tests. 2. 4. ENHANCING THE DEVELOPMENT OF FAIR AND UNBIASED ASSESSMENT MEASURES 2. 4. 1. Steps in Test Development To address some of the issues in fairness and bias in testing, Foxcroft (2004) has identified some critical steps in developing tests, particularly for a multicultural context. These include: (a) Defining the purpose of the test and the intended target population This involves outlining what is being tested, how the outcomes of the tests will be used and specifying that the test can be used in a multicultural setting. This implies that the test developer needs to identify aspects of the constructs that are common and unique across the groups being tested. The test developer should also identify the characteristics of the target population (such as educational status) and also identify the characteristics that may impact on test performance  (such as language) (Foxcroft, 2004). One of the major challenges in assessment in South Africa at the moment is language. In South Africa there are eleven official languages, and although English is the commonly accepted business language, psychologists need to ensure that in administering tests language is not a barrier in test performance. Translation of tests into different language is complex and makes the validity of constructs vulnerable (Foxcroft, 2006). (b) Defining the construct and creating a set of test specifications to guide item writing  This step refers to identifying the specific observable measures that will be tested. This can be derived from a job analysis which highlights the key knowledge, skills, abilities and other attributes required to perform a job successfully. It is important in a multicultural test that the norms and values across the different cultural groups for a specific construct are identified upfront so as to eliminate the construct bias. The constructs being measured need to also be of value and have meaning to the test user. Language is often a barrier in the meaning of a construct across multicultural groups and  research also indicates that in South Africa some groups attach political meanings to some constructs which can impact on test performance. Developing the content and specifications of the test is dependent on the methods used to develop the test, which can be theory-based (this means that the theory used needs to be applicable in a multicultural context), empirical (this implies that for a multicultural context the criterion being measured need to only discriminate on the specific criterion and not on other variables) or criterion-referenced (this implies that the development of the cross  STUDENT NO: 44674481 11 cultural criterion need to be developed by a panel representing the different cultural groups). The different specifications and dimensions of tests should then be tabulated (Foxcroft, 2004). (c) Choosing the test format and item format, specifying the administration and scoring methods In choosing the best method to present a test it is important that the tools (paper vs. computer), the format in which it is presented (multiple choice, diagrams, etc) and the response methods (verbal, written, etc) take into account the capability and familiarity across the different cultural groups. The administration and the scoring methods should also be fair across cultural groups (Foxcroft, 2004). Moerdyk (2009) identifies seven key steps in test development. The first step conceptualising involves identifying what phenomenon is trying to be understood. The second step is identifying the observable measures of the phenomenon (operationalising). The third step involves quantifying the observable measures. This requires content validity, distracters and a response set. The next step involves a pilot session of the test. By administering the test to a pilot group that is a  representation of the final test group, the opportunities for improving the test can be identified. Once the test is administered to the pilot group the next step is to conduct an item analysis and the correlation of items identified. The item analysis can then be used to revise the test and compile the final test (what is known as validity shrinking). The last step is to develop a set of norms that can be used to measure the responses against for interpretation (Moerdyk, 2009). Lastly, the test needs to be published and the HPCSA provides guidelines for test development to ensure fair and ethical  standards are met. De beer (2006), research findings indicate that for a South African multicultural and multilingual context the need for dynamic assessment is important as it accounts for differences across cultural groups as well as identify opportunities for further development. Other issues that are challenging to psychologists are the influence of other factors such as age, gender, socio-economic status, environment and cultural differences on test performance (Moerdyk, 2009). Some considerations for the future of assessment in South Africa are the use of technology advances in testing (artificialintelligence), the need to develop more culture specific tests, and the need for fair and ethical practices of psychometric testing (Moerdyk, 2009). 2. 4. 2. Core Characteristics of psychometric test Some of the core characteristics that psychometric tests should adhere to can be summarized as follows: ? It is based on standardized procedures and methods of assessment; ? It makes use of norms, comparing individuals performance against a category or norm group; ? It is scientifically proven to be valid (i. e. , it measures what it says), and reliable (the consistency and accuracy of  STUDENT NO: 44674481 12 measuring instruments); ? It can be applied in various institutions (health, education, occupation, etc. ) and the measures can be cross- culturally adapted with minimal test bias; ? It can be fairly administered to all individuals groups and organisations (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2005). In South Africa psychometric testing is regulated by the Employee Equity Act of 1998 which prohibits the use of psychometric tests or assessments unless it proves to be scientifically valid and reliable, is fair and free from bias (Foxcroft et al, 2005). 3. CONCLUSION From the above discussion it can be concluded that an understanding of the developments of psychological assessment is imperative to understanding the value in current society and in highlighting aspects to focus on change. In the past, psychological tests developed were used internationally in psychological assessments despite the differences in culture and language. This produced issues of bias and unfairness, as can be seen in misuse of assessments in the apartheid era in South Africa (Foxcroft et al, 2005). For a long time psychological tests in South Africa were perceived as unfair and  unjust (Sehlapelo & Terre Blanche, 1996). However, with the political changes in government and legislature ( such as the Employment Equity Act 1998) , the introduction of governing bodies (such as HPCSA) and the changes in ideologies (a move toward a dynamic approach in assessment), psychological assessment has progressed toward a more fair and ethical practice that is slowly changing these perceptions (Mauer, 2000). Challenges still do exist, however, in producing tests that can be applied in such a diverse country that has 11 official languages, and a vast number of cultural groups as  well as moving toward testing using the advances in technology. STUDENT NO: 44674481 13 4. REFERENCES Bartram, D. (2004). Assessment in organisations. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 53(2), 237-259. Claassen, N. C. W. (1997). Cultural differences, politics and test bias in South Africa. European Review of Applied Psychology, 4th trimester, 47(4), 297-307. De Beer, M. (2006). Dynamic testing: practical solutions to some concerns. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 32(4), 8- 14. Foxcroft, C. D. (2004). Planning a psychological test in the multicultural South African context. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 32 (4), 8-14. Foxcroft, C. D. (2006). Critically examining language bias in the South African adaptation of the WAIS-III. South African Journal of Industrial Psychology, 32, p. 97-102. Foxcroft, C. D. (2011). Ethical issues related to psychological testing in Africa: What I have learned (so far). Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 2(2). Retrieved 10 April 2014 from the World Wide Web: http://dx. doi. org/10. 9707/2307-0919. 1022 Foxcroft, C. , Roodt, G. & Abrahams, F. (2005). Psychological assessment: a brief retrospective overview. In Foxcroft, C. & Roodt, G. (Eds.), An introduction to psychological assessment in the South African context (2nd ed. , pp. 8-23). Cape Town: Oxford University Press. Foxcroft, C. , & Roodt, G. (2005). An overview of assessment: definition and scope. In Foxcroft, C. & Roodt, G. (Eds. ), An introduction to psychological assessment in the South African context (2nd ed. , pp. 3-7). Cape Town: Oxford University Press. Gregory, R. J. (2000). Psychological testing: History, principles and application (3rd ed. ). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Joiner, D. A. (2000). Guidelines and ethical considerations for assessment center operations. Public Personnel  Management, 29(3), 315-331. STUDENT NO: 44674481 14 Louw, J. (2002). Psychology, history and society. South African Journal of Psychology, 32(1), 1-8. Louw, J. & van Hoorn, W. (1997). Psychology, conflict, and peace in South Africa: Historical notes. Journal of Peace Psychology, 3(3), 233-243. Mauer, K. F. (2000). Psychological test use in South Africa. Retrieved November 24, 2003 from the World Wide Web : http. //sunsite. wits. ac. za/conference/psychology/pai1 Moerdyk, A. (2009). The principles and practices of psychological assessment. Pretoria: Van Schaik. Painter, D. & Terre Blanche, M. (2004). Critical psychology in South Africa: Looking back and looking forwards. Draft of a paper written for the Greek journal Utopia, 24 February. Retrieved on 15 May, 2014, from http://www. criticalmethods. org/collab/critpsy. htm Patterson, H & Uys, K. (2005). Critical issues in psychological test use in the South African workplace. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 31(3), 12-22. Sehlapelo, M. & Terre Blanche, M. (1996). Psychometric testing in South Africa: Views from above and below. Psychology in Society, 21, 49-59. Setshedi, M. J. (2008). Investigating the use of psychological assessment in South African schools. Unpublished Masters Dissertation. Johannesburg: University of Witwatersrand. Retrieved 10 April 2012 from the World Wide Web: http://wiredspace. wits. ac. za/handle/10539/5927. Van de Vijver, A. J. R. & Rothmann, I. (2004). Assessment in multicultural groups: the South African case. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 30(4), 1-7. Van der Merwe, R. P. (2002). Psychometric testing and human resource management. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 28(2), 77-86. Wassenaar, D. R. (1998). A history of ethical codes in South African psychology: an insider‘s view. South African Journal  of Psychology, 28(3), 135-145. STUDENT NO: 44674481 15 5. SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 5. 1 70%. I feel I have understood the question and logic to the assignment. I have best understood the value of psychological assessment and the developments in South Africa and I feel I need to improve on how fairness can be enhanced in testing. 5. 2 Foxcraft & Roodt (2009) was most useful. I have used other journal articles for reference and examples such as other studies by by Foxcroft, as well as some internet references (example dissertation on the use of psychological assessment). 5. 3. 2 months, approximately 1-2 hours daily 5. 4. It is relevant in the working context as it provides an appreciation and understanding of the value of psychological assessment as well as creates awareness of the challenges and opportunities for fairness and ethical practices in assessment 5. 5. Yes. It provides guidelines on how tests should be used, where it should be used, what aspects to consider in test development, what are the governance systems in place for fair and ethical testing, what challenges and opportunities exist for further development. 5. 6. I would like to improve my knowledge in referencing techniques, logical and systematic application of work. I would like to improve on my knowledge of dynamic testing by reading more literature. 5. 7. The quality of material is very good, it provides clear guidelines; gives one the opportunity to reflect on overall concepts and to assess quality of work. 5. 8. Yes the learning outcomes and assessment criteria was helpful in planning the assignment 5. 9. Yes the lecturer provided timeous guidelines and support on how to answer the questions as well as the important aspects to be covered in this learning outcome.