History of Alexandria Ancient and Medieval Period

Founded in 332 B.C. by Alexander the Great, Alexandria was intended to supersede Naucratis (q.v.) as a Greek centre in Egypt, and to be the link between Macedonia and the rich Nile Valley. If such a city was to be on the Egyptian coast, there was only one possible site, behind the screen of the Pharos island and removed from the silt thrown out by Nile mouths. An Egyptian townlet, Rhacotis, already stood on the shore and was a resort of fishermen and pirates. Behind it (according to the Alexandrian treatise, known as pseudo-Callisthenes) were five native villages scattered along the strip between Lake Mareotis and the sea. Alexander occupied Pharos, and had a walled city marked out by Deinocrates on the mainland to include Rhacotis. A few months later he left Egypt for the East and never returned to his city; but his corpse was ultimately entombed there. His viceroy, Cleomenes, continued the creation of Alexandria. The Heptastadium, however, and the mainland quarters seem to have been mainly Ptolemaic work. Inheriting the trade of ruined Tyre and becoming the centre of the new commerce between Europe and the Arabian and Indian East, the city grew in less than a century to be larger than Carthage; and for some centuries more it had to acknowledge no superior but Rome. It was a centre not only of Hellenism but of Semitism, and the greatest Jewish city in the world. There the Septuagint was produced. The early Ptolemies kept it in order and fostered the development of its museum into the leading Greek university; but they were careful to maintain the distinction of its population into three nations, Macedonian (i.e. Greek), Jew and Egyptian. From this division arose much of the later turbulence which began to manifest itself under Ptolemy Philopater. Nominally a free Greek city, Alexandria retained its senate to Roman times; and indeed the judicial functions of that body were restored by Septimius Severus, after temporary abolition by Augustus. The city passed formally under Roman jurisdiction in 80 B.C., according to the will of Ptolemy Alexander: but it had been under Roman influence for more than a hundred years previously. There Julius Caesar dallied with Cleopatra in 47 B.C. and was mobbed by the rabble; there his example was followed by Antony, for whose favour the city paid dear to Octavian, who placed over it a prefect from the imperial household. Alexandria seems from this time to have regained its old prosperity, commanding, as it did, an important granary of Rome. This latter fact, doubtless, was one of the chief reasons which induced Augustus to place it directly under the imperial power. In A.D. 215 the emperor Caracalla visited the city; and, in order to repay some insulting satires that the inhabitants had made upon him, he commanded his troops to put to death all youths capable of bearing arms. This brutal order seems to have been carried out even beyond the letter, for a general massacre was the result. Not withstanding this terrible disaster, Alexandria soon recovered its former splendour, and for some time longer was esteemed the first city of the world after Rome. Even as its main historical importance had formerly sprung from pagan learning, so now it acquired fresh importance as a centre of Christian theology and church government. There Arianism was formulated and there Athanasius, the great opponent of both heresy and pagan rcaction, worked and triumphed. As native influences, however, began to reassert themselves in the Nile valley, Alexandria gradually became an alien city, more and more detached from Egypt; and, losing much of its commerce as the peace of the empire broke up during the 3rd century A.D., it declined fast in population and splendour. The Brucheum, and Jewish quarters were desolate in the 5th century, and the central monuments, the Soma and Museum, fallen to ruin. This document is part of an article on Alexandria from the 1911 edition of an encyclopedia that is out of copyright here in the U.S. The article is in the public domain, and you may copy, download, print and distribute this work as you see fit. Every effort has been made to present this text accurately and cleanly, but no guarantees are made against errors. Neither N.S. Gill nor About may be held liable for any problems you experience with the text version or with any electronic form of this document. On the mainland life seems to have centred in the vicinity of the Serapeum and Caesareum, both become Christian churches: but the Pharos and Heptastadium quarters remained populous and intact. In 616 it was taken by Chosroes, king of Persia; and in 640 by the Arabians, under Amr, after a siege that lasted fourteen months, during which Heraclius, the emperor of Constantinople, did not send a single ship to its assistance. Notwithstanding the losses that the city had sustained, Amr was able to write to his master, the caliph Omar, that he had taken a city containing 4000 palaces, 4000 baths, 12,000 dealers in fresh oil, 12,000 gardeners, 40,000 Jews who pay tribute, 400 theatres or places of amusement. The story of the destruction of the library by the Arabs is first told by Bar-hebraeus (Abulfaragius), a Christian writer who lived six centuries later; and it is of very doubtful authority. It is highly improbable that many of the 700,000 volumes collected by the Ptolemies remained at the time of the Arab conquest, when the various calamities of Alexandria from the time of Caesar to that of Diocletian are considered, together with the disgraceful pillage of the library in A.D. 389 under the rule of the Christian bishop, Theophilus, acting on Theodosius decree concerning pagan monumcnts (see LIBRARIES: Ancient History). The story of Abulfaragius runs as follows:-- John the Grammarian, a famous Peripatetic philosopher, being in Alexandria at the time of its capture, and in high favour with Amr, begged that he would give him the royal library. Amr told him that it was not in his power to grant such a request, but promised to write to the caliph for his consent. Omar, on hearing the request of his general, is said to have replied that if those books contained the same doctrine with the Koran, they could be of no use, since the Koran contained all necessary truths; but if they contained anything contrary to that book, they ought to be destroyed; and therefore, whatever their contents were, he ordered them to be burnt. Pursuant to this order, they were distributed among the public baths, of which there was a large number in the city, where, for six months, they served to supply the fires. Shortly after its capture Alexandria again fell into the hands of the Greeks, who took advantage of Amrs absence with the greater portion of his army. On hearing what had happened, however, Amr returned, and quickly regained possession of the city. About the year 646 Amr was deprived of his government by the caliph Othman. The Egyptians, by whom Amr was greatly beloved, were so much dissatisfied by this act, and even showed such a tendency to revolt, that the Greek emperor determined to make an effort to reduce Alexandria. The attempt proved perfectly successful. The caliph, perceiving his mistake, immediately restored Amr, who, on his arrival in Egypt, drove the Greeks within the walls of Alexandria, but was only able to capture the city after a most obstinate resistance by the defenders. This so exasperated him that he completely demolished its fortifications, although he seems to have spared the lives of the inhabitants as far as lay in his power. Alexandria now rapidly declined i n importance. The building of Cairo in 969, and, above all, the discovery of the route to the East by the Cape of Good Hope in 1498, nearly ruined its commerce; the canal, which supplied it with Nile water, became blocked; and although it remained a principal Egyptian port, at which most European visitors in the Mameluke and Ottoman periods landed, we hear little of it until about the beginning of the 19th century. Alexandria figured prominently in the military operations of Napoleons Egyptian expedition of 1798. The French troops stormed the city on the 2nd of July 1798, and it remained in their hands until the arrival of the British expedition of 1801. The battle of Alexandria, fought on the 21st of March of that year, between the French army under General Menou and the British expeditionary corps under Sir Ralph Abercromby, took place near the ruins of Nicopohs, on the narrow spit of land between the sea and Lake Aboukir, along which the British troops had advanced towards Alexandria after the actions of Aboukir on the 8th and Mandora on the 13th. This document is part of an article on Alexandria from the 1911 edition of an encyclopedia that is out of copyright here in the U.S. The article is in the public domain, and you may copy, download, print and distribute this work as you see fit. Every effort has been made to present this text accurately and cleanly, but no guarantees are made against errors. Neither N.S. Gill nor About may be held liable for any problems you experience with the text version or with any electronic form of this document.

The Modern Day American Culture - 1038 Words

In modern day American culture; American citizens have become ignorant to many issues that affect people globally. Unless it seems to directly affect them people tend to be completely apathetic to gaining new knowledge of foreign occurrences, and why would they? America has fallen into an age of egocentrism in which it fails to consider the problems many people globally face, those issues which are considered unimportant or irrelevant by media sources country-wide. The ineptitude of Americas populous on issues of foreign economical and geopolitical matters is astounding. While our focus has been so concentrated in places where we are not needed, and have been repeatedly told we are not wanted, there have been many in need that have been brushed over. How is American egocentrism harmful to others? This question has been brought up many times, and can be safe to say that American cultures value of itself over others can be very harmful to many groups worldwide that don’t get much recognition. A quote taken from The Narcissism Experiment says, â€Å"The United States is currently suffering from an epidemic of narcissism.† (Campbell, Twenge) This has become increasingly true in the past couple decades, and Americans as a whole have started to become blind the problems people of the world tend to face every day. The story of Memory Banda, who has had experiences few outside her country would understand in the way she does, is one of these cases. For many people in America â€Å"I willShow MoreRelatedEssay on A Message of Hope in Love Medicine1005 Words   |  5 Pagespopular stereotypes of American Indians. The novel generally follows the history of a family of Chippewa Indians who live on and off a reservation. 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Beloved Essay Flashbacks Essay Example For Students

Beloved Essay: Flashbacks Essay Toni Morrisons novel Beloved swims like a garden pond full of minnows with thoughts and memories of days gone by. Each memory is like a drop of water, and when one person brings up enough drops, a trickle of a stream is formed. The trickles make their way down the shallow slopes and inclines, pushing leaves, twigs, and other barriers out of the way, leaving small bits of themselves behind so their paths can be traced again. There is a point, a vertex, a lair, where many peoples streams unite in a valley, in the heart of a pebble lined brook, and it is here that their trickles of days gone by fuse with each other, and float hand in hand until they ultimately settle to form the backyard pond. By unveiling her pond drop by drop, memory by memory, Morrison allows us to travel down the paths that converged together to create the story of Beloved. When an author uses a direct path to a story the readers tend to dismiss the unknown past of the characters, focusing instead on their forthcoming depicted futures. In Beloved however, the reader is forced to take trips back to the past, which help tie together the relationships of today. The repetitive nature of the narration also allows the reader to assimilate portions of the text that were inevidently connected to form an entwined net of relationships. For example, each time a new character is introduced, you are brought back into the memory of another character, to identify the new comers relationship to the story. In most text, a new character would be simply introduced with their importance to the here and now of a story, instead of the shared history amongst other characters. Most history that is shared between characters in most books is history that writes itself during the course of the book, as opposed to the memories formed so long ago, that it takes a great deal of time to bring them back to the surface. In this manner, we are also always finding out new bits of the past in one character, that turn out to tie into the past of another. When a person is given the opportunity to bring together that which they have just found out with previous information, a story is being conveyed. However, Morrison allows that information previously obtained be spun around to be the present, and new information be turned into the past. This happens in the most clarity in the book when Beloved brings us into her world where her present narratives turn out to be her yesterdays before her arrival at 124. This new information helps the reader to understand more of where she is coming from, and why her actions are as they are today. When new information is given that relates to earlier in the book over and over again, it makes the reader want to go back and start over, and to allow themselves to catch what floated past them the first time. Missed ideas like these are introduced throughout the duration of the book. As an example, the first sentence in each of the parts begins with a note of the state of the house. 124 was spiteful, 124 was load, 124 was quit.. (3,207, and 293 respectively) The first two times this is brought up, it is easy to glance over it, but by the third time, it is obvious that it not only has relevance, but it gives a glimpse into the chapter ahead. Another thing that is eluded to multiple times is the significance of trees. .u5bd279d93093db78ac351001c79bdb79 , .u5bd279d93093db78ac351001c79bdb79 .postImageUrl , .u5bd279d93093db78ac351001c79bdb79 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u5bd279d93093db78ac351001c79bdb79 , .u5bd279d93093db78ac351001c79bdb79:hover , .u5bd279d93093db78ac351001c79bdb79:visited , .u5bd279d93093db78ac351001c79bdb79:active { border:0!important; } .u5bd279d93093db78ac351001c79bdb79 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u5bd279d93093db78ac351001c79bdb79 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u5bd279d93093db78ac351001c79bdb79:active , .u5bd279d93093db78ac351001c79bdb79:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u5bd279d93093db78ac351001c79bdb79 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u5bd279d93093db78ac351001c79bdb79 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u5bd279d93093db78ac351001c79bdb79 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u5bd279d93093db78ac351001c79bdb79 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u5bd279d93093db78ac351001c79bdb79:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u5bd279d93093db78ac351001c79bdb79 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u5bd279d93093db78ac351001c79bdb79 .u5bd279d93093db78ac351001c79bdb79-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u5bd279d93093db78ac351001c79bdb79:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Beyond The Chocolate War EssayIm sure this isnt an intricate part of the story, but a reoccurring theme none the less. Denver finds her peace in her Emerald Closet, while Paul D and Sethe find their freedom by following the trees. The horror of Sweet Home is masked in much of Sethes memory by how beautiful the trees were, and the terrible scar on her back is referred to as a cherry tree, full of life and beauty. It is images like these that characters memories draw for us, images that might not have been alluded to if their memories werent tapped. I think that the most wonderful part of Beloved, however, maybe very well be that just when you think a character has told you everything from their past that could possibly lead you up to their future, a new trickle of memories seems to begin to flow, and drop by drop, you begin to connect new parts of their past to their futures. That drop by drop, a dried up spring can return once again to its pebble-lined stream. A stream that comes together to make a pond worth looking into time and time again, because along with each new drop of water comes a new ripple to the surface, and new meaning behind depths.

Lacoste Brand

Lacoste is a luxury brand that has mostly relies on online distribution channels for its marketing and public relations exercises. Through this online strategy, Lacoste is able to maintain its position as a luxury brand. Direct channel marketing in Lacoste’s case involves use of various tennis and golf personalities, a strategy that has been a trademark of the brand since its inception.Advertising We will write a custom article sample on Lacoste Brand specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, the brand ventures into online marketing in the late 1990s in a bid to remain a relevant trendsetting brand. Although some of the brand’s merchandise can be found in departmental stores, its most exclusive items are only available to consumers through its website. As a luxury brand, Lacoste enjoys both advantages and disadvantages of direct channel marketing. One advantage of direct channel marketing is that it helps maintain th e status of Lacoste as a luxury brand. All potential customers are aware of where they can access the luxury brand’s items. Use of retailers makes the brand more visible and easily accessible but it also has the potential to make it a household name thereby eliminating its exclusivity. Direct channel marketing also helps Lacoste to avoid high instances of bootlegging that are often associated with other luxury brands. It is common knowledge that some luxury brands such as ‘Dolce N Gabana’, Chanel, and Gucci among others are often the target of counterfeiters. The reason for this vulnerability is that these are easily accessible through the ordinary retail channels. Therefore, customers are not able to verify the manufacturer’s signature distribution channels when they are purchasing these items. On the other hand, Lacoste’s most exclusive and pricy items are often sold through its website and customers are assured of the brand’s quality when they make purchases through this channel. Direct channels also give Lacoste a global reach at a low cost. For instance, 90% of Lacoste’s total purchases are from countries outside France. In addition, the company has presence in over 114 countries around the world (Lacoste, 2015). Direct channel marketing enables a company to â€Å"connect consumers with its product, especially via a web-based channel†¦.most importantly, web-based selling has low overhead and gives a product a potentially global reach (Kapferer, 2012). In this day and age, direct channel distribution comes with a convenience that is better than that of indirect channels. Consequently, a direct channel means that consumers can be able to access Lacoste’s product anytime of the day and also have them delivered to their doorsteps. As a luxury product, Lacoste also aims to give its customer’s ‘luxurious’ service through its online channels. Indirect channels deny Lacoste control o ver the level of service that is offered to its customers.Advertising Looking for article on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More One disadvantage of using direct channels is that it denies Lacoste’s products a verifiable geographical reach. For instance, not all global consumers are conversant with online shopping. Consequently, Lacoste cannot realize its full market share through its current online forums. Lacoste’s direct channel strategies also mean that the company lacks the services of specialists in various fields (Nicolau, 2013). The company’s main goal is to achieve a certain level of quality in all its products in line with its croc logo. However, it is apparent that the company neglects other aspects of business such as marketing and web-design. For example, a quick glance at Lacoste’s website does not reflect the luxury aspect of the brand. Other similar luxury brands hav e done a better job in marketing and web design. Indirect channels can grant Lacoste access to various experts in fields such as marketing and branding. Luxury brands should only sell their brands online because their most prized asset is their brand names. Consequently, the ability to maintain brand integrity is a main priority for most brands. Online avenues eliminate the chances of proliferation of counterfeited products and increase consumers’ level of confidence. For example, if a certain product is never stocked in retail outlets, this would reduce the value of other similar fake products. Another reason why it is prudent to market luxury products online is that this avenue gives luxury products a global reach (Nicolau, 2013). In the information age, most luxury products are recognizable throughout the world. However, their access in the global front might be limited by the manufacturers’ choice of marketing channels. Marketing luxury products online does not red uce their ‘luxurious’ aspect of a certain product as it was earlier assumed. Some of the websites that specialize in luxury products utilize modern information-technology tools such as high-resolution imagery to maintain a high level of luxurious appeal. On the other hand, the retail market environment features several aspiring luxury brands. Consequently, a legitimate online luxury brand has an obvious advantage because it means the item has achieved a certain level of legitimacy. A luxury brand that sells products through online channels also means that manufacturers have an avenue of tracking consumer response and feedback. For example, some online shops allow users to post pictures of themselves sporting the items that they purchased. This avenue can also act as additional advertising in for a luxury brand. References Kapferer, N. (2012). The luxury strategy: break the rules of marketing to build luxury  brands. New York: Kogan Page Publishers.Advertising We will write a custom article sample on Lacoste Brand specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Lacoste. (2015, November 15). Lacoste: What’s new. Retrieved from https://global.lacoste.com/en/lacoste/ Nicolau, L. (2013). Direct versus indirect channels: Differentiated loss aversion in a high-involvement, non-frequently purchased hedonic product. European Journal  of Marketing, 47(2), 260-278. This article on Lacoste Brand was written and submitted by user Reese Nolan to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.